test 1 Lecture Notes: Race Relations in the Post-1945 United States — Exam Prep, Readings, and Primary Sources
Exam, Readings, and Course Context
The instructor notes that some assigned readings parallel what is being covered in class and offer additional information about issues not yet discussed in here. If you haven’t kept up with that reading, make time to catch up because material from those readings will appear on the exam.
The first exam: overall is fairly straightforward; no exact date or year questions will appear on short answer prompts, but chronology matters. You should show understanding of the sequence: an event happened, then another event, then another, within a general time period (e.g., the GI Bill in the late 1940s: x, y, and z). No questions will require an exact year for a given event.
Names of important people (e.g., presidents, congress members) could appear if they have been significant in the material discussed. Example: Harry S. Truman, Eisenhower (to be mentioned this week in the context of race relations). Spelling/grammar in names is not graded; content is what matters.
If you have questions about the exam, you can email the instructor or ask on Thursday.
Upcoming Spring Course: 400-Level History on the Nineties
The instructor will teach a 400-level history course on the 1990s, which you can audit. It will cover both US and global perspectives; readings may be one overview book plus articles on Canvas; exact assignments are still being decided.
Central question: Was the 1990s the end of the twentieth century or the start of the twenty-first century? Analyzing major events from that decade helps grapple with that question.
Class meets on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 1:00. This course is being advertised as a potential option for spring enrollment.
Advising and Scheduling Reminders
Advising is coming up; if you’re planning to take courses in the spring, consider the new 400-level history course on the 1990s.
If you have questions about this course, the instructor is available to answer them and has prepared a description for colleagues involved in advising.
McCain Archives Project: Assignment Overview
Not a research paper; instead, you will analyze an archival collection and write a 2,000-word essay (~8 double-spaced pages).
Paper components (five major parts):
Identify the collection name and collection number.
Provide a general description of the collection (what it covers).
Give information about the historical context outside the collection (based on your knowledge of the period).
Describe what kinds of sources the collection includes (types of materials).
Analyze five sources from the collection: for each source, identify what it is, who made or wrote it, when it was made, what it says, and what its argument or point is.
Paper structure: approximately one page of analysis per document (five sources), plus about three pages of broader context and concluding insights about what you learned from examining the collection.
Due date: end of the semester (the last day of class). You have ample time, but questions are encouraged early so you don’t fall behind.
If you have questions about the sources you chose or the analysis, you can ask the instructor for guidance.
Focus of This Week: Race Relations in the US after 1945
This week centers on race relations in the post-1945 period, emphasizing that race relations is a central, ongoing theme in American history, shaping domestic life and US foreign relations.
The plan is to explore major themes and issues through primary sources to understand the Civil Rights Movement beyond a narrow timeline.
The instructor anticipates that many students may already know aspects of civil rights from other courses (e.g., History 202). The aim is to build on that knowledge with primary-source readings to uncover less familiar dimensions.
Core Topics and Discussion Framework
What do we know about the civil rights movement? Topics commonly associated with grassroots activism, often organized through churches, student groups, and local organizations.
A debated question among historians: What was more significant—the grassroots activism from below or the national leadership (e.g., figures like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.) who appealed to presidents and federal power?
Lyndon B. Johnson’s role: LBJ, from Texas and not Ivy League-educated, became interested in civil rights because democracy is only thriving if all Americans have guaranteed rights; Johnson’s push for civil rights involved persuading fellow Democrats in the 1960s—a party realignment that shifted the political landscape in the South over time.
Before WWII, race relations were generally treated as a state issue (states’ rights); post-WWII, the federal government expanded its involvement, and civil rights became a federal concern with Supreme Court cases driving major changes.
The preferred shorthand case: Brown v. Board of Education (Topeka, 1954) overturned “separate but equal” as inherently unequal, allowing federal action to push desegregation in schools and other public facilities. Note that Brown followed several lower-court cases challenging “separate but equal” in colleges and other settings; Brown was notable for reaching the Supreme Court.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Key Takeaways
Ruling: Separate facilities are inherently unequal; de jure segregation cannot be justified as equal.
Consequence: Busted open the federal government’s ability to push for desegregation in education and other public facilities.
Concept: The phrase “with all deliberate speed” indicated a federal push toward desegregation, but implementation varied and sometimes lagged.
Precedents: There were earlier cases where lower courts found that separate facilities were not equal, laying groundwork for Brown.
Violence and Its Role in Civil Rights Consciousness
Emmett Till (1955): A 15-year-old Black boy murdered in Money, Mississippi after alleged provocation toward a white woman, with his mother insisting on an open-casket funeral to reveal the brutality. This case had significant implications for U.S. foreign relations and internal civil rights dynamics.
Systemic violence and terror: The Mississippi Sovereignty Commission (state-structured spy organization) involved members of law enforcement and state politics; violence against activists was often connected to broader power structures.
Birmingham church bombing (1963): The bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, killing four young girls, highlighted the brutality of resistance to desegregation.
“Mississippi Burning” case (1964): The murders of civil rights workers Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner in Philadelphia, Mississippi, revealed violent repression against voter registration efforts.
Violence surrounding peaceful protests: The sit-in in Jackson, Mississippi (1963) at Woolworth’s (involving Tougaloo College students Ann Moody and Joan Trumbaugh, with support from a white professor John Salter) showcased nonviolent tactics facing severe hostility; the image of protesters being doused with beverages or attacked illustrates the risk and intensity of the moment.
Bloody Sunday (1965): The Selma-to-Montgomery march revealed police brutality and government response to civil rights protests; the event is central to understanding state power and the push for federal civil rights legislation.
Sit-Ins as a Primary Tactic and Its Narratives
Greensboro sit-ins (1950s) and Jackson Woolworth’s sit-in (1963) served as early and influential forms of nonviolent action.
interracial participation: The Jackson sit-in included both Black and white participants; this highlighted coalition-building and the role of white allies in the movement’s strategy.
The personal accounts (e.g., Anne Moody’s narrative) emphasize the human experiences during sit-ins: the surrounding crowd (high school students, adults on lunch breaks, reporters, waitresses, sympathizers), the fear of violence, the potential for reputational damage, and the FBI’s surveillance-era tensions (e.g., accusations of communism against civil rights activists).
The imagery and rhetoric during these events connect to broader patterns of media coverage, public perception, and the national conversation about civil rights.
Malcolm X and Black Nationalism (1964 excerpt)
Malcolm X provided a contrasting perspective on how change could be achieved, emphasizing Black nationalism and skepticism about the effectiveness of nonviolent integration.
He argued that Black people might not be “American” in the same way if they are denied rights, highlighting the social construction of citizenship and the persistence of discrimination despite generations in the U.S.
Economic dimension of Black nationalism: He argued for keeping wealth within Black communities—Black-owned businesses, economic self-sufficiency, and keeping dollars within the Black community rather than integrating into predominantly white economic spaces.
He linked slavery to ongoing economic disparities: the wealth generated by Black labor built the United States, yet many Black people still faced inferior living conditions and wages due to systemic racism.
He advocated for immediate, urgent change: “Civil rights for those of us whose philosophy is black nationalism means, give it to us now. Don't wait for next year, give it to us yesterday.”
Contrast with integrationist pragmatism: Malcom X’s stance differed from calls for gradual federal legislation; he emphasized economic and self-determination strategies and cautioned against relying solely on white political institutions for reform.
Broader context: His approach aligns with earlier Black nationalist currents (e.g., Marcus Garvey) and connects to debates about assimilation, segregation, and self-determination within the civil rights movement.
Barry Goldwater and the Civil Rights Act (1964) – Reading Plan
Barry Goldwater, a Republican Senator from Arizona, opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in this excerpt, offering a contrasting conservative perspective within the same party as one of the week’s readings.
The instructor plans to assign another Republican Senator’s perspective in a later session (to be read on Thursday) to juxtapose with Goldwater’s stance.
This dual-polarity within the Republican Party in the 1960s is used to illustrate the range of political arguments surrounding civil rights legislation at the time.
Key People and Institutions Mentioned Throughout the Session
Harry Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower: examples of presidents connected to civil rights discussions or context in the week’s dialogue.
Lyndon B. Johnson: champion of civil rights within the Democratic Party; Texan, not Ivy League-educated; worked to persuade Democrats to support civil rights; helped move federal civil rights initiatives forward.
Marcus Garvey: early Black nationalist leader cited as part of the intellectual lineage behind Malcolm X’s views.
Tougaloo College: historically Black college (HBCU) involved in the Jackson sit-in; Ann Moody (Black student); Joan Trumbaugh (white student); John Salter (white professor who supported the protest); the college’s president at the time also supported the civil rights cause.
Emmett Till: his case as a high-profile emblem of racial violence and a catalyst for national awareness.
Goodman, Chaney, Schwerner: civil rights workers murdered in Mississippi in 1964; central to the narrative of violence and the federal response.
Birmingham’s 16th Street Baptist Church bombing: a turning point in public perception of violence against African Americans during the civil rights era.
McCain Archives: a local or state archival collection used for the semester-long archival analysis project; reference to a stadium (M. M. Roberts Stadium) connected to figures involved in blocking desegregation, illustrating how local histories tie into larger national narratives.
The Sovereignty Commission: Mississippi state-sponsored organization involved in surveillance of civil rights activists and connected to state and local law enforcement.
Historical Context: Federal Involvement and States’ Rights
Pre-WWII: Race relations were generally framed as a state issue; the federal government’s role was limited regarding civil rights.
Post-WWII: The federal government expanded involvement in civil rights, with federal courts and federal legislation playing pivotal roles in desegregation and anti-discrimination efforts.
The movement’s narrative includes a tension between grassroots activism and national leadership, as well as the pushback from white supremacist groups and state authorities.
Primary Source Readings and Discussion Prompts
The lecture introduces several primary sources to illuminate the civil rights era from multiple angles (grassroots activism, white resistance, Black thought, Northern dynamics).
Discussion prompts include:
What are the bigger issues revealed by these sources beyond Black vs. White conflict? Are there additional dimensions (economic, political, media portrayal, international perception)?
How do different voices (e.g., Anne Moody, Malcolm X, Barry Goldwater) interpret citizenship, rights, and reform differently?
How does violence both push and complicate the civil rights agenda?
What is the role of media and public perception in shaping the civil rights narrative? How does the FBI’s surveillance and the charge of communism influence activist legitimacy?
Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance
The discussion ties to foundational concepts in American political development: federalism, civil rights, and constitutional rights (13th, 14th, 15th Amendments).
The materials connect to ongoing debates about the best paths to social change: nonviolent direct action versus Black nationalist approaches and economic self-determination.
The sessions highlight how the civil rights movement shaped and was shaped by broader social changes, including media representations, political party realignments in the South, and federal-state power dynamics.
Ethics, Philosophy, and Practical Implications
Nonviolence as a tactic: its effectiveness and limits are discussed by contrasting voices like Moore Moody (nonviolent sit-ins) and Malcolm X (black nationalism and rapid change).
The ethics of protest: the risks taken by activists—personal safety, reputational risk, academic and career consequences, and potential legal repercussions.
The economic dimension of civil rights: the debate over integration versus economic self-determination (Black-owned businesses and keeping wealth within Black communities).
The role of government power: federal intervention vs. states’ rights, and how federal civil rights legislation interacts with grassroots activism.
Notable Formulas, Numbers, and References (LaTeX Format)
Timeline anchors: 1940s (late) – postwar expansion of federal involvement; 1954 (Brown v. Board of Education) – separate is inherently unequal; 1955 (Emmett Till murder) – catalyzing national attention; 1960 (Greensboro sit-ins) – early nonviolent demonstrations; 1963 (Jackson Woolworth sit-in) – interracial protest; 1964 (Civil Rights Act process and Mississippi Burning context); 1965 (Bloody Sunday) – Selma to Montgomery; 1965-1966 – Civil Rights Movement legislative momentum; 1963-1968 – Birmingham and other violence episodes; 2000 words – McCain Archives paper length requirement.
The nineties in the spring course: 1990s as the focal decade for the new 400-level class.
Quick Reference: Key Dates and Concepts (summary)
1954: Brown v. Board of Education – separate is inherently unequal; federal mandate for desegregation begins.
1955-1956: Emmett Till case helps catalyze civil rights consciousness.
1960-1960s: Grassroots activism, sit-ins, and the rise of organized civil rights campaigns.
1963-1965: Major violence episodes (Mississippi and Alabama) intensify national debate and legislative momentum.
1964-1965: Civil Rights Act and ongoing federal enforcement; internal debates within political parties.
1965-1968: Selma and beyond; evolving strategies and the push toward broader federal protections.
1964-1969: Goldwater’s conservative critique juxtaposed with pro-civil rights arguments within the same party.
End of Notes: How to Use These For Exam Prep
Focus on understanding chronology and causal connections rather than memorizing isolated dates.
Be able to discuss both grassroots and national leadership dynamics, including the role of federal power and court rulings.
Be prepared to analyze primary-source excerpts for rhetoric, tone, and implied arguments about citizenship, rights, and the appropriate pace of reform.
Reflect on the ethical and practical implications of the tactics used by activists and the responses they provoked from authorities, media, and political leaders.