Mitosis and meiosis

There are some little stickers and you can't in the stockroom I just umm all right so To be able to answer you also have to know the difference because you're going to have OK this one diploid number of say 6 how many chromosomes am I looking at are they replicated or unreplicated OK all those kinds of these kinds of questions will be on your final exam pictures solves problems so if you play the card game and like when I made the card game I took pictures of it and like I laid out the cards and it was like OK this is what it looks like if the cards are in place this is what they look like if they're investing so this is what they they move around a certain way and that should help you prepare for your final exam I'm not going to show you pictures of cards I'll show you pictures of really simple cells chromosomes but like the card game is the right Claire all right cool this little clicker thing because it gets to something that seems to be confusing for our society as a whole which has to do with stuff like sex and gender and despite what some people might say all right these things biologically OK or whatever I think it is my responsibility to teach you some of the nuance that can happen in terms of sexual development and differentiation so we'll talk about how things frequently go and we'll also talk a little bit about how things can go OK and it's biology students it's important for you to understand that like in most topics in biology it's like yeah here's what usually happens and then here's the stuff that can't happen too and it's not like it never sort of impossible events that sometimes happen too OK so we are talking about women's sexuality in schools all right from a biological perspective this is just one example of an athlete yes are you going to go over the like exam today OK and the keys are out in labs so look at your keys and then if you have any questions like I'm very happy to if I'm not your lab instructor which I will be if you're in the lab for the rest of the week if you want to go through the key with me I can help affect you because one of the things that I think is really useful thank you that's perfect a lot of times it's super helpful if like the questions you missed on the exam that we talked about like what were you thinking like OK maybe you picked the second best answer but I wanted the 1st test you know or maybe you just like thought that this sounded better because it had more words in it or something like that you know and those can be strategies that help OK one thing that I if you're someone that looks at your scantron and you're like Oh my gosh there were 5D's in a row like I don't play with that like I don't care it doesn't you may I'm not thinking it would be statistically likely that you can get an exam where ever correct answers see I don't know I'm not going to mess with it you guys if you haven't noticed if you've ever looked at the different versions like you all get the same questions but they have to be in different orders and the right answers have to be in different orders so I scrambled your tests to make sure that they are all different ordered in terms of the questions and the answers by the time I do that scrambling I also don't then do another thing where I'm like OK I don't have more than three season around like Nope put on here OK so if you're ever looking through your scantron and second guessing yourself on whether or not I would put the 5D or whatever like I don't care so I don't change it you know it won't so don't think about that OK so anyway so this is like a top all right you're probably familiar with the example of a female athlete who has had an accusation of you know sexual differentiation or you heard something there are plenty of examples and high level sports right testing is a long history and very competitive sports like the Olympics if you're interested in something that's more interesting to me as a biology teacher is what does it mean to be male or female OK one it depends on the Organism OK like sexual differentiation that prevents changes a lot among different organisms if we're talking about humans and organisms that don't regularly have sexual switches and adults all right we're talking about whether or not an Organism makes for perfect OK organisms that make eggs are considered female even if they've previously made sperm OK if they make sperm they're male all right the only difference between eggs and sperm from a biological perspective is eggs are considered the bigger gametes sperm of the smaller gaming if the games are both the same size we actually don't call them things in the spirit so that's the basic biology now again most biologists will argue that there are OK so to make to get to the point where someone makes fully developed games which is what we're talking about when we talk about meiosis OK that has a number of different genetic and physiological components OK and those can align with the typical arrangement or maybe not alright since we're talking about the process of being osis which is the process of cellular division that produces gaming so eggs and sperm we're going to spend a lot of time talking about the division of chromosomes and the presence or absence of things like sex chromosomes OK so remember it's your job to read your book it's your job to watch talk about sex determination and humans like to talk a little bit about some other organisms because not all organisms use the same sex determination system that we use all right we're going to talk a little bit about sex determination in humans alright so but when we talk about sex and humans whether we identify as someone male female or somewhere in between we look at things like anatomy all right So what are their primary and secondary sexual characteristics all right do they have production and things like that all right do these organs function in the way that typically results in the production of eggs or sperm things like that alright their chromosomes now one of the problems that typically happens with groups trying to categorize humans in terms of their sex is they want to look at just say one of these characters OK let's just look at their chromosomes OK and after you study the chapter on meiosis you'll understand that not everybody is going to have either an X OK on this junction events which is the thing that you'll see on your final exam and nondisjunction event is on the chromosomes fail to separate normally OK you can end up with more or fewer of these chromosomes OK you guys are probably all familiar with Down syndrome all right Down syndrome is an individual has three copies of their 21st chromosome Down syndrome is one of the more familiar trisomies because many other trisomies when monies are fatal so you don't often see people that have them all right but that is an example of a non disjunction events OK during normal meiosis one copy of each homolog is supposed to be distributed to alright when someone who has Down syndrome they have had either the sperm or the eggs contribute 2 copies of that 21st chromosome so but you can have other changes too like physiological changes anatomical changes so there and this is just given all of the levels that biologists necessarily look at when they talk about human sex differentiation OK but for our classmates midnight all right so something that you do OK so type is a sustained visualization of chromosomes. Types are frequently done when a chromosomal abnormality is expected for suspected OK so sometimes they're done checking for various types of chromosomal abnormalities when you look at your chromosomes OK so remember we're going to be talking round around the histone proteins those are kind of like field organizers if you've ever like pulled over in a file folder it's full of papers and if they weren't organized it came credibly difficult to find the papers that you have hanging file folders and organizers you're like ohh I'm looking for something for my taxes so that's like these histone proteins help to also package it up really nice and tight and whatever it's nice and tight after pressure from the location Yep you're attached to each other identical to each other OK so you want to write sister chromatids umm but this is like the first time OSHID identical promises are identical in parentheses unless until crossing are identical unless until crossing over your comments are identical unless until approximately over and then you write equal signs same jeans same positions same lens OK they have the same versions of the house they are copies of one another OK sister chromatids are formed during DNA synthesis a replication alright they are identical copies of each other until crossing over first OK crossing over only occurs in prophase 1 will be on your final exam OK in this example this chromosome and kind of looks like an X this joined together like attention mayor alright that's gonna be what we staying and hue and aquarium type OK and this one happens to be right because we see the two sister chromatids are strong so there is an example of a carrying this one kind of like looks like it's not replicated but if you look really closely here you can see like there's a little gap between each of these so these are actually replicated and you see how chromosome one has two replicated chromosomes on it everyone say it with me chromosome one has two replicated chromosomes OK those are the homolog OK so you want to write underneath your discussion of sister chromatids homologs have the same genes at the same maybe different alleles dogs have the same genes at the same positions but maybe differently have the same genes at the same position but maybe differently OK because like I don't know which gene we're talking about OK and some organisms that make the only one version of the gene OK but in other organisms there could be thousands of versions of the gene OK it just depends alright so that's why there's this maybe OK when we get into genetics if you are looking at an Organism that's homozygous that means it has the if it's heterozygous they have different buildings yes OK so here you're 2 OK so it's 6X and Y don't actually look like X's and Y's alright and I forget the story on the way they got named alright so but the Y chromosome is very small OK this is kind of important when we talk about sex linked traits so in chapter what are we in now we did 12-13 in chapter 14 when we talk about genetics and then chapter 15 when we talk about like just thought polygenetic sex linked traits are either found on the X chromosome or on the Y chromosome the Y chromosome is very small it typically only has genes associated with male development in humans like it has some other stuff mostly that's what it has OK whereas the and the X chromosome has genes related to other stuff like in humans red green color blindness OK that gene is located on the X chromosome alright so for a carrier type OK so here's some important stuff to remember and diploid organisms you have two versions of each chromosome one from mom one from dad all right humans have 23 final exam just because like and ** typically results in female development the presence of an X chromosome and Y chromosome typically results in male female so you can watch this thing on how you make carrier Times Now there are instances where you can get abnormalities in the distribution of sexual problems OK affects the structure it can be caused by missing damage or texture of sex from zones alright so one of these are ones that your book talks about Turner syndrome is a monosomy so individuals who have Turner syndrome typically have external female Physiology and anatomy and Physiology however they're missing one of their ex because there is extra stuff on the X chromosome there are some conditions that are kind of affiliated with partnership from not gonna get don't spend time studying the specific characteristics of your Turner or kleinfelder or any of these other symptoms just be aware that they exist OK all right somebody who often shows male external physical often the presence of a wide chromosome is going to lead a fetus into that individual into a male pattern of development OK and this gets into like how you know a developmental biology but there are specific scenes on the Y chromosome that when they get activated they trigger a pattern of male development OK so before like seven weeks of gestational age fetus is neither male nor has characteristics then if that chromosome works properly might put it on the path toward male or female developments OK I really like male development because male development gets like on all right because of genes on the Y chromosome alright I'm going to a little bit all right let's see here so again all adult humans can have fairly normal anatomy and have one of these sex chromosome abnormalities OK again don't spend time on your studying for your final exam about the specifics of them all right but like in this instance OK so here's our first quarter replicated or unreplicated pretty clear OK and just for clarity I'll tell you it's on replicated OK I warned you that it might be hard so I'm just going to tell you right now if you look all right there are no little bits where it looks like there's two arms that are just like nudged close together this is unreplicated DNA OK this is not your most common most carriers will show a replicated push on replicated we'll do that specially thank you thank you and five yes huh because like remember replicated chromosomes have identical sister chromatids attached to the center that will be on your final exam OK maybe I'll show you a picture and be like is this a replicated or unreplicated OK this these are homologues of the same chromosome 19 OK and they are attached alright thank you now here's a question XXY genus so remember I told you that X&Y chromosomes that don't look like X or Y OK I told you that the Y chromosome just looks a lot smaller than the X chromosomes chromosome is a lot smaller than the X chromosome is it primarily contains genes related to male sexual development again I'm feeling generous alright this is a wide chromosome alright all right then 5:00 and 4:00 3 all right all right now we're going to go through the old school like what's the process of this OK humans that are deployed all right it's called an egg the eggs and the sperm because they are both half blood cannot develop into an adult human on their own they have fused together to make a zygote the zygote is what we refer to that first diploid cell all right and then that side goes undergoes many many many many many many rounds of mitosis becomes a multicellular individual the process starts over OK this is the human life cycle all right now when we are talking in another way to say that OK so again the whole purpose of meiosis is to create daughter cells that have half the chromosome number of the difficulties they have one of each of the homes not alright because sperm and eggs are supposed to be fused together and that get back to the normal chromosome so when we're talking about like if you I want you to practice drawing these things OK because you will see drawings of them on your final exam and then we do better at answering the questions that follow if you're familiar all right so OK this is 1 chromosome of a homolog but now it's replicated OK so if I show you this if I show you this and I say one of a pair of diploid sets of chromosomes replicate it still happened OK OK this is the diploid representation one from mom one dad these are diploid but replicating OK this part gets people confused you're like but I see that there's four times as much DNA as there was like OK yes there is there are four sister chromatids but because these two are genetically identical to each other what is the first thing I made you write down today sister chromatids are genetically identical to each other until crossing over because this is exactly the same as we don't count it as two different things we count it as the same thing but it's replicated OK I'm going to warn you I know I haven't asked this question in a while but sometimes I will and if you guys are not in the right order maybe I'll meet you all right I could ask you a question about chromosome OK this is 2 chromosomes this is to chromosomes so I ask you a question about amount of DNA alright then I'm not asking you about chromosome number I'm asking you like hey how much if you were to weigh out this DNA how much would it weigh in the right answer would be ohh it weighs 4 times whatever that thing weighs OK does that make sense all right so even though you have more alright if it's not different when I ask you a question about chromosome number you answer it like hey we have two chromosomes here they just happen to be replicated OK but if I tell you a story where I tell you about the mass of DNA and you're like wait a second that's twice as much or times as much as living cells to start thinking like OK how many sister chromatids are present because I could then ask you something about a stage of meiosis OK like hey the gamete had this much DNA in it OK but you found a cell that had if I do something like 4 times as much OK you have to I think to yourself OK if the game had ex and you're looking at a cell that has four XI know that that cell has replicated chromosomes do you see how it sounds like there's so basically I'm just giving you a piece of information that's supposed to relate back to some part of phase of meiosis where the sister chromatids have not split OK if I wanted to be tricky that's the way I could be tricky OK so alright here's the question this chromosome is composed of two chromatids joined by descent which of the following statements is true you guys can see this better than I do you can see it here on your phone I can't see you OK OK I'm going to help you with this OK this person is composed of two chromatids joined by senator which of the following statements is also true these chromatids make up a diploid chromosome is that true diploid means this either came from mom or death OK but because we're looking at replicated chromosome where we've got two sister chromatids attached to the seminar alright this one and that one are genetically identical to each other so get that first answer is wrong OK it is not the service contains these sister chromatids must be deployed no you could see this cut this arrangement in any any part of a cell that's gone past meiosis 1 so I should say in any part of any cell phase in meiosis 2 OK and meiosis one we separate the home locks and miosis 2 we OK so there's not enough information to tell whether this cell is in applewood or in diploid phase OK these sister comments were formed by replicating a single comment joined by fertilization bringing together maternal and paternal no that's not how it works OK we never confuse maternal like 1 maternal sister chromatid and one internal that's not how it works all right I 100% will ask you questions on your final exam what is the mitosis daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parents of this form them for the purposes of growth development asexual reproduction like budding or blah blah blah OK meiosis is about making a gift that's the purpose whenever we get into the phone guy and things like that you'll get to learn other stuff OK so another way you could say is meiosis is about making daughter cells with half the chromosome number so once again this is 100% of your final exam what stage do the homologs separate homologs separate the meals this morning what stage does sister chromatids separate sister chromatids separate Yammer on about it videos there all right touring with normal number final exam where I don't ask you about the three sources of genetic variation that happens in the sexual reproduction and you will very happily write things like crossing over in prophase 1 of meiosis results in unique combinations of alleles that never existed before and then you'll write an independent assortment in metaphase allows the homologs from line up and totally different arrangements which result in different daughter cells and then three you'll say the fusion of gametes resulting combinations of alleles that you will write those three things you will feel very proud of yourself you're supposed to accomplish all right so no good OK And Paris there we go this is the term you need to know it's not excel these body cells also think about it as not 3 all right so final exam all right at the end of the first stage of meiosis one the two cells are already halfway OK don't forget that alright if I'm like at what point during meiosis do the cell the daughter cells become haploid you say at the end of meiosis one OK even though the sister or have not separated yet alright because the homologues have separated we call those daughter cells happen OK if you were to measure the amount of DNA it would be the same as the parent cell but the information there is only half of what was in apparent so OK because the whole law all right so whatever information was on the maternal chromosome 2 is in one daughter cell and it's not in the other OK whatever information was on the paternal chromosome 2 is it was one daughter cells but not the other OK now in the second division alright because the homologue breakfast and big giant ask capital letters alright ohk separated meiosis 1 ohh along separate videos this one do you want to get super technically Miller separating and they're really great totally like suffering suffering I will want you to go home on separate promises breaking them apart they are no longer attached with the seminars then they go off into alright I'm not going to go through all these like animations because you can do that at home but maybe I'll like post them on Thanksgiving here big capital letters Yes but that's the thing that I want you so maybe whenever you're studying your little group of people who are super helpful to you you're like practice and try to find ways to trick your friends OK because that's how you can like start to think about ways that I add question our answer choices that are like a little alluring but still incorrect OK so 4321 two what happened 3 all right ohh my gosh I love independent assortment so much good player card game again that's why I like to do 3 different types of chromosomes because you know it's a little easier to see a different kind of starting with three instead of it's good any more than that it's working OK so here's the difference OK this is showing you it with just two which again I like to show these three I think in the video maybe I did 3 anyway internal here we have the two maternal homologs lined up towards the left and the two paternal ones lined up toward the right OK but the thing to remember about the other one is the whole logs all line up like independently of each other so so we're going to go on the right side OK it's random alright so each pair of chromosomes everyone write this down it's gonna help you answer questions all right there's two different options I'm going to pretend like cells have left and right because that makes sense OK like mom can either go to the left or mom can go to the right OK it's like dad dad can go to the left or dad can go to the right OK for each pair because each pair of homologous has that mom to the left or mom to the right option OK that means that it's not like ohh there's 2 2 or whatever different ways it's 2 to the 23rd different ways human cell can line up in metaphase 1 of meiosis OK because each homolog has two options and there are 23 homologs so it's 2 to the 23rd power OK that's how many different ways a human cell can line up on the metaphase one plate immune system OK each cell has two or each homolog has two options but since there are 23 pairs of chromosomes there's two of the 23rd different arrangements OK if we were talking about I think drosophila have like 4 chromosomes OK or maybe they have 4 pairs of chromosomes so it would be like 2 to the fourth OK like 8 comes on if you go to genetics and I was wrong my God they would only have two to the fourth different options because there's four pairs of homologs OK and again because you have one home love from mom and one from dad OK and they can go either way so chromosome 1 OK so let's see here and this is how so we see our arrangements so this is kind of like just showing all the different phases OK so right at the top here like if you were to print these up close this up if you were to print these out you would be like this these cells are in metaphase one OK the homologs are lined up on the metaphase plate like if I ask you to distinguish between a cell that is in metaphase 1 of meiosis versus metaphase of mitosis and mitosis all the chromosomes line up in a single file line OK Phase 1 of meiosis the homologs line up so you have like a double line does that make sense I love to put questions on your final exam about that where I show you a picture and I'm like hey what phase is it OK if you see a single file line it is either so just write this single file line of chromosomes it's either metaphase of mitosis metaphase 2 of meals alright you have to know the number of chromosomes to tell the difference between if it's a single file line with the diploid number of chromosomes you are looking at mitosis metaphase OK because you know that the cell is already haploid at the end of meiosis OK so I would have to tell you what the normal chromosome number is I can't just show you a what phase is it because you have to know what the normal chromosome number is to determine between metaphase and mitosis and then in Phase 2 of meiosis OK but if all the chromosomes are there you're looking at a cell that is in metaphase of mitosis OK if only half the chromosomes are there you're looking at metaphase 2 meiosis OK and if you're seeing a double line of chromosomes that's metaphase 1 theosis line up together OK so be prepared let's see that's all right how many possible combinations of maternal chromosomes in a human egg due to independent assortment all right it didn't show it didn't do it right I'm going to just give you the right answer OK so remember 2 to the number homologous pairs OK so a human egg can have two to the 23rd OK pull everywhere doesn't keep formatting so when I put this answer in it was 2 with superscript 23 I forgot that it doesn't keep formatting very well so I just put it together OK 2 to the 23rd is about 8,000,000 OK you are not going to have to remember something like ohh there's 8 million different combinations and the formation of the single games but you should remember that there is 2 to the power of however many cars OK so like that's just something 2 to the 20th alright and that's what I'm wanting to do here if it's information that Jack all right so everybody alright 54321 alright what happens during crossing over OK I was really harping on mulligan's chromosomes have the same size they have the same shape they have the same centromere position they have the same genes at the same position I was harping on that on Monday because all of those things have to be true for the process of crossing over to occur crossing over the two homologs right over each other and basically align segments of the DNA right next to the corresponding parts on the other home alone OK so the genes line up say this is the gene for if we're talking about say drosophila eye color OK because there's not one in humans anyway these proteins that are holding them close together allow enzymes to come in and sniff them and swap them OK so one of the things I want you to write down is though you'll want to have to remember this for your final exam crossing over new combinations of alleles that never existed before on that sister Crompton passing over did never existed before like this before crossing over occurred this sister chromatid you guys can see the one that I'm using my little pointer on this is for chromatin is exactly identical same gene same alleles as this one before crossing over these two sister chromatids were exactly identical to now this is not identical to the one across the centuries properties OK so another way you could say this is crossing over creates non identical system problems that doesn't really summarize why it happens though OK it's it's telling you what has happened but it is for other explanation I gave you tells you why it happens crossing over has an evolutionary advantage of creating combinations of ideals that never existed before OK this combination of say go sleep pattern probably never existed before OK this combination of mostly maternal but a little paternal never existed before it wasn't what was in mom OK and this is not what was in dad it's a different arrangement of alleles that never existed before OK and these were then get passed on to the games where does crossing over crossing over occur happen in mitosis crossing over is is strictly miotic says that it happens in prophase 1 of meiosis it does not happen at all in mitosis it creates unique combinations of alleles that never existed before OK so this is one of the ways that sexual reproduction creates new genetic diversity in populations OK whatever damn all right probably ever that makes sense now you said this is crossing over strictly yes it does not happen in mitosis I love to ask questions on your final exam like oh oh I'd ask this when does it happen in mitosis and the right answer being never it doesn't but something like that OK I would make it a little bit more smooth but like eventually like there'll be a question like do you understand this doesn't happen in my OK so this is one of those 3 mechanisms that I'd love you to be able to talk about OK and then it happens in prophase 1 of meiosis does not happen in mitosis it doesn't happen OK now one of those things let me go back on the Jillian slides real quick so if you look at these homologs you can see they've been dyed the dyes correspond to like different parts of the DNA that we're attracted the dystopian way out of the blah blah blah all right but like you could expect the crossing over could occur between the parts that have the same color OK and like you can see that you're like ohh OK all right then do align with each other which is how they line up the way they're supposed to in meiosis OK because they have to recognize that they are homologues of each other and they do have to line up together on the metaphase plate so there's little pieces of DNA that tips that allow them to recognize each other as we're going to talk about 30 seconds alright so during crossing over all of the following except All right good crossing over is about increasing genetic variation alright so we talked a little bit about sex determination in mammals males typically get 1X chromosome and one Y chromosome females typically get 2 all right of the zygote because either like the sperm is either going to have an X or Y whereas all eggs because females are * all eggs carry exponents ohh let's see here something like this all the eggs 5050 so I will post these up so you guys can play with them whenever you want to make practice so I told you that there are these regions on the work as homologous pairs when we talk about how they line up but they're not like really homologous because they don't carry the same genes the X chromosome has very different genes than the white Chrome alright and like I said the Y chromosome mostly has a lot of genes associated with male development OK so here ohh actually showed up here but so basically the only reason that these two different chromosomes arranged like OK so the very tips of those chromosomes do match up they can participate in some crossing over all right again there's one last thing that we can talk about and what determines sex and humans are specific genes OK so the one that you're both talks about YRG Alright so the six determining region of the Y chromosome gets located pretty close to that pseudo autosomal region OK or just you could say the tip that allows these two to behave like homologs all right when in like the 7th normal male development gets turned on and starts express Because you guys are biologists you'll often deal in the most of the time but then there's also some other we know that genes can get damaged during DNA replication OK or that they can get by modification like we all sorts of things that can happen where a gene doesn't work the way that it usually would or does it end up where it often would OK and because of SYR gene is located toward that tip sometimes you can get them to process OK crazy things happen so yes SRY gene can get moved from a Y chromosome during this process the sperm development OK sperm production you could get damaged during DNA replication you don't function properly you can have lots of things happen so everybody pushed the all right all right so again the main point of this though is that you can get different someone can have an X karyotype but their X chromosome has gotten SYSRY gene moved over to it during a crossing over event or you can have someone with an XY carry those type where that SRY gene has been deleted or damaged or otherwise nonfunctional OK and in that case because that SRYG is so important to triggering male development in utero if it doesn't get turned on you're not gonna see there are individuals who have extraordinarily female presentation for the anatomy who have karyotypes that would indicate they have the X&Y chromosomes OK and that can be because that what that Y chromosome carries a damage from missing or somewhat somehow otherwise nonfunctional and therefore that fetus never pattern of development I'm done alright anyway I ask you about crossing over because I think it's super important and the big thing that I want you to remember is that crossing over creates unique combinations of alleles that never existed before crossing over occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis any other type of solution OK this also went through a little bit of independent assortment which I equally love OK so independent metaphase one of the one of the houses and then also talk a little bit about that last way that you can create an accountability and such why else do we talk about this because you guys are biologists and apparently in this country we've stopped learning that things can be weird in biology I don't know how that happened whatever alright but if someone wants to tell you that like there's only two biological sexes like that's not biologically accurate OK because the term section comes along and people do and would be either swapped over YRRY OK so you can have two extremes extremes don't usually have SRY genes on them but nothing in biology is always OK there's usual and then there's kind of unusual OK it is not usual to get an SRY gene on an X Chrome impossible likewise most why chromosomes do carry the functional genes but not all of them OK there are plenty of instances where people have genes that don't work and we know that happens in all sorts of things not related so it's not shocking them it also happens and things related to sex OK and it's sexual development has so many layers to it it's that what we look like on the outside is what we're going to do on the inside it's what our chromosomes look like inside our DNA and it's what our genes are doing with those chromosomes OK so it's just complex and it's future biologists I think it's important to understand some of that so let's switch over I don't know if I'm gonna make you guys do the yeah

February 28

  Cross cross like all the crosses there are videos all the different modes all of what I want to use our class practice but I'm not right almost done. Peter Parker how to plan I think so fast let's get started on the handout on monohybrid and dihybrid cross all right so start with sort of alright so basically you need to be familiar with that I keep saying what quote previous sentence 3 responses on your final exam questions OK and I would like to have OK earlier definitions would be the second again the coaster particular traits but then we realized traits like say human eye color it's governed by many at least three maybe 13 like we're still trying to figure out human eye color human hair color human skin color humans are actually really garbage organisms any of the trades that we single gene traits that we can try to explain in this course OK because remember I'm teaching you a tiny segment of genetics you may take an entire class on genetics yourself for you OK and many of the traits that you might be interested in like human high all sorts of other stuff you'll see these normal bell curve all over the place human hair texture human eye color more than we call that a polygenic go back OK because the money transfer structure OK translated into functional you don't even have entire families what's happening in the DNA in a population and these different versions of a trait and how that plays out typically you know the strikes OK 2 all right type from dad all right we're gonna use these males and females and males over the next few doctors Without Borders another one from their father one from their eggs from working in the firm so it's helpful often are learning the female and male organisms combination we can think about that for a specific gene like whenever we do this punnett square for the gene we can be like ohh what is the mom's genotype OK and here I'm showing you like the mom has 2 dominant the term genotype could also mean like all of the organisms collections all right different OK all right these two parents in this example here are both homozygous even though they have different levels compared to each other but because they have two of the same alleles in their DNA they are homozygous offspring though they're having fun dominant I guess excessive what we're doing right here square possible combination of families alright together old fashioned way for saying homozygous he didn't know what DNA was OK didn't know what they were you know any of us OK all you do is that he had different types of plants and some of them no matter how many times you self fertilize them all right they would always show the same thing all right so if you if you allow those plants to self fertilize them all the offspring all of their offspring would be all right so no matter how many rounds of South fertilization down that lineage except for so let's get into our first little example here all right we're going to use this content Organism that superpower all right now pretend that you have all right all right

·       if you cross the spine strain with the spinal string followed the offspring has spots which version of the spine or spine

 President all of the offspring are is the Howard works the genotype collection homozygous dominant all right individual offspring genotype for both the mom and the dad all right what is the genotype going to be homozygous dominant heterozygous homozygous recessive so if this egg meets up with this term capital letters that's homozygous dominant what is our genotype going to be very good genotype now I can ask you some questions about and those are different questions than proportions of genotype you might wanna ask is she asking a question about China types and the reason for that is is that eggs and sperms will result in the dominant got it 3/4 of the offspring that leaves 1/4 of the recessive phenotype which is type settings heterozygous and we would say half the offspring are heterozygous are homozygous one of the things that kind of corresponds with what's discussed in your book is like a test cross either the homozygous dominant genotype or the don't know one way is by breathing the individual with a homozygous recessive individual that has the dominant phenotype has the whole Process however whatever you breathe them test for us test fraud have the projected offspring the other half will show up when is it time to cross when you don't know the genotype of the individual that has dominant you know everybody's genotype and homozygous dominant individual if you don't know what they're genocide is one way you can try to figure it out cross question OK you know a true breeding individual you know like I'll give you you figure out sort of gone through all of this now alright so true breeding F1 generation here heterozygous the last one two different a lot of it in high school great practice questions out there and we'll make some of them against the cat stuff here too so we'll play around with it but make sure you do some practice we're going to introduce another trait all right all right red eyed referee green quote that letters to The are they pretty the bad all right because if you start playing around you're doing a lot of practice problems it's very easy to stop people very conscientious about the size of the food weather and then you can't really go back makes sense the letter B for eye color in that one what are the genotypes of these offspring I will try to mess with you and put something like red eyes OK but that is the wrong answer because I am asking you ask yourself type question organisms outward expression so make sure you answer what I'm asking trying to turn you off what proportion of the offspring will have red eyes so how many of them have red eyes 100% true I asked this question all right and genotype is what a combination of all right now red eye capital letter r if I ask you a question on your final exam about the genotype and I give you 2 traits give me 4 letters all right 2 2000 together all right what would you expect their offspring will look like genotypically and phenotypically now you may have done in high school or anything violent or whatever we're not going to they need to be basically says that these traits there are sometimes anticipate because we are assuming that the spinning wheel and the eye color wheel are either on different chromosomes or are far enough away on the same chromosome or the crossing over that we just talked about on Wednesday crossing over actually happens it is anticipated to happen at least several times so as long as two genes are located pretty far apart even if they are on the same chromosome they will be so we can do different squares for each trait so here let's just do the gene for five color all right eye color was our all right all right all right we should get 100% heterozygous everybody's following here one time type and what's the phenotype of these offspring in terms of they all have read on it respond 100 1 now have fun now So what am I over here I'm going to do it here genotype this bag is instructive perfect all those you know OK 1/2 is heterozygous if I want to do phenotype and one quarter all right here dominant here here genotype breakdown are homozygous dominant ½ 2000 no this one is always really hard I'm going to slowly move forward thank you for calling like I don't want to breathe through it because I want to get through all of the possible practice problems you don't like it I genuinely your faces look bored in a lot of scenarios so it's very hard to judge from where I'm at all right OK ¾ 1/4 play around Best Buy they will have red eyes probably portion of these offspring will have red eyes and spine yes So what do we do with these two numbers add them multiply and divide them OK next we can play around with like coin flips OK and I can't remember exactly what we're doing play the game probability that the planning and the quarter what's the probability what's the probability so the probability of both of them turned up 30%? To do them as fractions because I will make them you will not need a calculator for any of my fans OK what you do need to be able to do is do some basic multiplication with like through your values the probability of 3/4 ¾ 3 3 4 * 4 is 16 times table this panel then you would have the answers that are things like 160 OK so that's how you would see an answer and that would be great something like 1/4 of this case please all right we said one before that note the one for 16 red eyes and nose spine 3/4 of that red eyes we would expect that to be and 3/4 that's 5 now you've got these two practice how many traits can I ask you to calculate square for each trade just a simple 4 square 5 square figure out the probabilities? Just figure out what's the probability whatever it is I'm asking these questions are like so where does this part how many trading 3 trades figuring out your probabilities I'm asking you basic multiplication of probabilities OK next week next week has nothing this weekend problem

 times the ideal body permanently umm that might make sense yeah and of course one thing from the number and usually I would put this question where the thing about cutting whether or not can we turn it up people that showed the trade have colored even squares people who don't show the trades have now and actually write this down OK generation So what do I use my automobile we can whenever we talk about this is actually I think umm one and two are specific alleles that are associated with a very high risk of breast cancer everybody who gets breast cancer will necessarily have one of these alleles umm you have a very very high risk of getting breast cancer proactively had double mastectomy that could be had both basically those specifically an example of like they're found on AutoZone the reason that I say they're available lie is because males will carry these genes alright but because males have such a smaller amount of tissue OK it's not that it's not possible but it's just less likely it would look a little bit funky dominant trait their their so anyway this is my like little caveat on the rules of probably at some point see something like and I want you to understand that like sometimes there are reasons OK but when you're out practicing genetics being doctors asking your doctor whether or not you should get business stuff would be informed about OK insurance regulations are history of breast cancer and that seems kind of crazy because it was passed from your father by his father when his father OK for your final exam not necessarily for all of life and all of the medical I gave you an example of one kind of common they have to advocate on their behalf anyway normal like that on the second problem skip and then we also females differently so found that they are having another floor OK what is the problem red green color red green color blind remember and I showed you a picture of an individual who had an XY genotype and you can see that the X chromosome is a lot bigger than the Y chromosome environment is from Wednesday OK the X chromosomes really long a lot of games chromosome OK as parliament is the red green color blind OK the dominant version of the gene that allows somebody to distinguish between red and green basically you can't tell the difference between them this is where karyotype is being kind of interact how many chromosomes do humans typically have OK typically have two versions of the red green color blindness e-mail all right so males are typically applied for the red green color blind the wheels because they don't have an analogous chromosome doesn't carry that OK red green color blindness typically is a female type we see more often in males than females because males only need to inherit 1 phenotype whereas for a woman a typical woman to be recognized follow me here so in this example alright so I'm telling you red green color blindness which is a threat that comes up often enough this type of trade is found on the text from the zone R dominant recessive colored line color blind or not Where mother so we were to draw her genotype on her property OK draw each one carrying the recessive that causes threat with the dominant allele that causes normal color we wanted to all of their combinations alright chromosome from the a female that is heterozygous vision what are all these boys are they going to is there any chance no because the boys only get texts from from their mother and their mother is homozygous they will get whatever trait she has from this something I'm going to give you a simple category I'd like to do it example of codominance in your past as an example one of my favorite my favorite examples of codominance umm that means that they have alright and this one time we show that like the dominant version so incomplete Diego type in you guys OK I have a red blood cell I'm going to have now that would be something where I actually thought about how watch the video on that one all right so like you could say for instance you know if the homozygous yellow complete dominance heterozygous OK something like simple as that OK flowers the offspring ohh you guys can't see it very well right

March 3

 Alright any of that stuff techniques trade he called them trades but we know that because OK and they segregate they're located on different can line up differently on the meter base move up their original homolog to the other one during the process of crossing over I love love love love love product question in which phase of cellular division differs in all the protocols are there and they'll say things like no because they're still independent assortment meiosis OK and that I feel like tell me the three. Discuss that with you in their offspring what happened combinations of alleles that never existed from all of this then you're going to practice tonight and live this week and then they'll say things like the number then you go back to your screen to talk about #2 independent assortment OK line up on the metaphase plate of meiosis 1 could be going towards that one or it could be reversed all right and basically you know that because there are two different ways the maternal can go like this to say left versus right OK that is 2 to the number of pairs of homologous proteins OK so humans have 23 pairs of contacts so there's 2 to the 23rd different ways that those molecules promises can line up on the metaphase OK so how the homologs line up creates sexual creates variation in sexually reproducing and then last but not least fertilization the combining of sperms and eggs creates unique combinations of humans as well OK so there's three mechanisms by which sexually reproducing organisms create genetic variation crossing over independent assortment 192 of the population of organisms and sexually reproducing organisms evolved differently than the phase section they both evolved they both are changing genetic diverse all right you're going to want to remember ohhh yeah like that's what it is this is what all right so let's talk about chapter 15 alright the chromosomal basis is correct alright so this is an actual like you know real thing all right there is a condition called hyper psychosis alright so is that a common condition right but there have been about 50 documenting cases since the Middle Ages like this is a one of the things we're going to I'm going to tell you at the beginning all right produced in two different ways all right chapter 15 talks a lot about sex linked traits versus AutoZone traits when I assessed you on chapter 15 I'll probably spend a lot of time talking about sex linked traits versus AutoZone for your final exam and you're studying chapter 15 alright really focus on the difference between sex and chapter 15 is all about chromosomes as the mechanism by which segments of DNA are inherited OK and it kind of combines together all the chapters on cellular division and mendelian genetics and really formulates all together in our current all right anyway just to kind of say like yes this is a condition that isn't very common but it's something that has you know popped up at various points people who have this condition and historically they've been sort of pushed off from marketing because they have been surfaces and other effective probably all right now how does this condition occur all right then double stranded DNA DNA give me so there's a problem now start remembering where we have this complementary base pairing alright privacy this first one here like this is showing a double ceiling showing different colors for the different nitrogenous bases to showing that there will be which structure now that's like very very zoomed in all right through DNA exists in these long long strands the second image here looks like it's wrapped around the tennis balls those are the histone proteins remember last week I described histone proteins like file folders they kind of helped to organize the DNA into like discreet sections all right they also help to kind of condense it if you've ever used like packing you know they were packed with packing cubes and like you put all your underwear and one packing cube while your socks and another one and then you zip them up and push them down and makes them real nice and dense and it makes it possible for you to pack bunch of stuff in the suitcase that would have fit in there otherwise and then we have on that third one a single unreplicated chromosome OK and then in the fourth image here we have a replicated Polygon condensed replicated content this is what you often see when we're talking about something in the early stage all right strands of DNA are read five times and three times because that's the way that the reason add new new to the three prime and of the growing Oliver alright that was another thing I was like just tattoo it OK to project right you want to just write the simple version of three by three OK that doesn't that's all you have to do it if I ask you to give me a complimentary code of DNA if I ask you to like tell me the the order of the nitrogenous bases and I want you to give it to me 5 prime and three prime unless I tell you other ones OK because that's how they designed gene codes for particular traits but we don't like to say trait because really it's not time for M RNA or RNA product OK because not every single thing about eye color in humans we think there's right alright so we will talk about eye color all right all right our first poll everywhere all right a template strand a little bit Help finished complementary strand you start at the end of it remember I'm giving you answers that say five times OK so remember they're anti parallel so if you want to look at if you want to figure out the complementary strand of this OK I showed it to you 5 prime to three prime alright when you read it when they make the compliment alright right across from the five prime

·       you were doing the complementary base pairing at the forefront so you can get it right but you have to have come from this back end here answer this question is to start at the three prime end of your templates and work your way back alright so what's this a complementary base pair with all right so anything that doesn't start with T is not a good choice right that gets rid of the answers it's less difficult than you think whenever you go through if you were going to stand here and you're like she she was extremely stuck with the three prime all right good job all right so expect questions like this here final exam last week all right so it's just a profile of all the chromosomes typically it's often snapshotted it metaphase which is why usually you will see the chromosomes replicated because they haven't yet separated all right this person all right 543 all right good work quick review and I posted out please practice it will help you on your final exams it will also help you toward this week's lap like this week lab is basically playing McCarthy so there are lots of points where you're going to have to get up and you're going to have to draw stuff on the board all right the lab goes very quickly and people are like yes I'm very practiced at the arrangement of on the board it goes a lot slower and people are like oh I don't want to I don't know what I'm talking about because then we have to wait until people are ready to draw and you guys have to like look through your notes you do things like that all right so the lab can be a very quick lab if you're practicing now and it's really nothing very different than the main business so remember before any cell divides it has to get a signal to divide it has to replicate its DNA if we're doing the osis alright the entire point of meiosis if I were to ask you compare and contrast questions ask your parents please tell me at least two or three things that are similar and at least two or three things that are different and things that are similar like ohh well before any type of cellular division you have to get a signal to divide and replicate the DNA and you could be like a lot of the phases look really similar but things that are different in mitosis you produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and she produced daughter cells that are unique to the character can you talk about how many daughters themselves all these things OK helping you with your family so the process of meiosis is about having the problem I will also ask you questions like what is the purpose of meiosis 1 compared to neurosis 2 and you can tell from this image right here the purpose of this one is about separating the homologs alright meiosis 1 Oh my God that should be right sorry the colors are off you should be red anyway they separated and then giving those two sister chromatids separate so you could say like that would be on your final exam what's the difference between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 meiosis 1 is about separating hollows neurosis 2 is about what stage of meiosis do the cells become half blood it's once the whole logs of separate OK so you could say like anaphase or telephase once the home logs are separated those daughter cells are not gonna have a complete set of genetic information half even though the still replicated the sister chromatids haven't separated you are missing whatever alleles are on that other home alright codes for particular polypeptide RNA products different versions of Community College so important here 192 OK there is a rule that you can only have two alleles first specific gene we're going to teach you genetics like that often happens but that's not necessarily true great example of that not being true as human blood type all right humans can have alleles alright for the alleles for proteins so if you've ever talked to somebody like blood type they have a allele is producing a glycoproteins getting expressed their B allele on the other pool office chromosome is expressing the B glycoprotein somebody who has ohh blood type has a recessive allele that produces no glycoprotein you remember exam too where I asked you questions about like ohh self has a mutation that they don't produce any carbohydrates on the exterior surface of their red blood cells that was a question that I put in there so that I could then remind you guys function of cells when we talk about things like genetics and blood types so I will use human blood type on your final exam for maybe two different types of questions one where I ask you like how many different alleles can there be in a population the answer is infinite whatever OK if I ask you how many alleles can a diploid Organism have the answer is 2 it gets one allele from mom's death where I talk about something like OK and get expressed itself whereas the lower case I allele is recessive and if you have two recessive alleles then your red blood cells produce no glycoproteins and that's the hallmark of the full blood all right if I ask you about your genotype I'm asking what are the combinations of a wheel for this so if I ask a genotype question about blood but if I ask you a phenotype alright that's the outward expression OK so if I ask you a blood type phenotype thing it it would be an answer like hey blood type A or B blood type OK all right someone well I'll get into that there's this factor is more complex it's there's a lot of different alleles that contribute to a positive factor and I believe it's a lot of the federal civil respect stop I believe negative like if you have a negative blood type that's from a recessive allele and there are fewer alleles that do that it is more complex than like AMD because there are lots of deals that will generate positive risk factor so this is like an example of Polytechnic traits all right I will ask you blood type question I love blood type questions alright the other thing I'd like to ask about blood types are like say someone has blood do you know their genotype what do you guys think well OK how about this can you tell me a genotype that generate a blood type what would it be so capital IAOK so the dominant a allele if you are homozygous for the dominant a allele you would produce a blood type scenario yes is that the only gino's thank you what's the other one what type of what's the other genotype that produces the dominant genotype the heterozygote with the recessive allele could give you that blood type so if an individual just has one dominant capital I superscript illegal and then one lower case OK that person was also one of my favorite favorite things to do is tell you a story about two parents who but they don't know all the possible offspring that they could have and the answer is all of the possible genotype alright they could have offspring that are a blood type they could have blood type they could have blood types they could have ohh blood types OK it's all sorts of excellence kind of going off memory if they say I have one parent that has a blood type which means they could have either lower case recessive or they could have another blood type OK we don't know all right and if the other parent has been blood types and again we don't know do they have the lowercase recessive or do they have another key OK where where mom so if this egg meets up with this term OK we know that this offspring is going to have a blood type OK if this egg meets up with if this dad has the recessive allele we get a blood type OK but if this egg meets up with this sperm we could end up with another AB blood type OK which is still the same phenotype we've already got one OK if this firm meets up with this egg OK we'll get but if this firm meets up with this egg blood type OK and for giggles here let's say we do these two together this is where we get ohh one time so this is an example so I tell you a story of parents that have one has a blood type and one has B blood type and they do not know their genotypes and I ask you list out all the possible phenotypic combinations of their offspring although you could have individuals that have blood you have lots of potential AB blood all right and then you have some individuals that could be and you have a lot of redundancies where it's like where you have more possible combinations so probably an easier way to do that would have been a couple different times squares to show it to you but I want to spend all day doing right now but that's a great practice question OK when you are doing your own practice questions tell the story of two parents one has a one has B nobody knows their genotype and then you can write out all the various points where OK but this is a great example of multiple last time and it's an example of codominance OK all right you guys know about Donna versus recessive all right we've already kind of just done that an example of plants it was probably a self fertilization where the parent plant was heterozygous so we get lots of different combinations of potential candidates we have different proportions of phenotypes compared to respond and all right how many different genotypes I said cross like Jesus mother Really all right all right which one how many anyway recessive heterozygous how many different phenotypes 2 right now now we're starting back to our there are two different ways that someone can end up with the hyperspace it can either be inherited autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive what this means is that there are multiple mutations that can trigger this phenotype of pair production in that normal AutoZone not one of the second ohh let's see here I'm getting that myself there's going to be another one excellent alright so anyway this is just explaining AutoZone additional recessive that's mostly like what we talked about with mental basically all of the traits that mendel was looking at with those P plants or AutoZone OK and we're in chapter 15 Thomas hunt Morgan does make an important observation alright so mental says both males and females contribute equally to their offspring's genetic composition and that was actually pretty radical at the time there were plenty of people that thought that like sperm contained entire whole humans I don't know how they have that because obviously there's a lot like their moms ah was the one that actually said no both parents contribute equally to the genetic composition of their body and so that was because he was looking at AutoZone OK this is a dominant trait OK so I got a little ahead of myself alright one way you could have hypertrichosis is measuring mutation alright so it is normal pattern of computing I think that's probably because of so if we're talking about imperative patterns OK autosomal recessive trait alright and this one they kind of I don't like how they show unaffected people as as dark color because usually in our pedigrees we show it the affected individuals are so sorry for the mental error OK recessive condition OK and you have two parents that don't show the condition but are both carriers for one of the recessive alleles you would expect one out of their four children to show that trait statistic OK that's for autosomal recessive pattern of when you're looking at pedigrees when you examine the pedigrees autosomal traits tend to show the same pattern of inheritance between males and females when examining a pedigree autosomal traits tend to show the same pattern that parents from males and females because it's OK so autosomal traits tend to show up equally in males and females and I have a whole like video on how to examine pedigrees OK so one of the first things you can do is you can look at the affected individuals and see if you see a pattern based on sex OK if you do see a significant difference between affected that's a good clue that perhaps you're looking at a sex linked trait OK but if they're equal it's probably an AutoZone training OK now recessive traits can skip generations OK like these two parents are not OK one of their children OK so this is an example of a skip generation Eric the parental generation doesn't have the trait and then it shows up in the offspring OK so you can then write patterns for looking at pedigrees recessive traits tend to skip generations generation whereas if a trait is autosomal dominant OK so in this case the father has one copy of the trait OK we'll copy of the dominant allele all right half of his sperm are gonna have this trait and have it won't OK so if you look at see here is one of his spirit and here is the other half had the half built OK on the mother doesn't have all but all you need is one copy all right so we OK so when you're looking at it in a higher grade autosomal dominant traits never skip a generation but I did tell you that exceptions to that rule and that's just because you don't develop breast tissue the same way that females do OK so the whole story as told you about the RCA one of the RCA 2 is just to remind you it was never gonna skip and I'm like it didn't tell you that one whatever but in general I'm not going to show you and you never see the traits skip a generation that is a good indication it's a dominant trait if the trait also doesn't have any kind of a disparity between males and females so a male who is a heterozygous carrier for an AutoZone will recessive disease marries a homozygous uninfected female what's the chance of having an affected child so just for reference we're talking about AutoZone recessive but this is different than this image OK a male who's an autosomal recessive carrier marries an unaffected woman alright So what do you that is a little you're looking at the AutoZone will recessive side but the mother is OK So what percentage of the children are you guys familiar with what how do you explain it was like OK carrier for cystic fibrosis play OK the mail carrier he does not have cystic fibrosis but he carries the recessive allele for cystic so if the mother does not have is not a carrier water what's her genotype to lower case should be homozygous dominant the likelihood that this couple could have a child with cystic fibrosis what genotype the genotype for cystic fibrosis is what our unified command heterozygous homozygous recess you'd have to be you have to be homozygous recessive OK so all right this couple have an offspring that's homozygous recessive answer your question #5 M4 and two easy 1 flower I would probably put a couple answer choices that have zero at the front to like give you something alright why there was no chance of this combination of eggs and sperm producing a child with cystic fibrosis all right but 50% of the offspring would be expected to be carriers all right alright now 61 trade show different patterns than autosomal traits all right we're not gonna I do have like a little video where I describe that like not every Organism uses an XY pattern of sex determination there are patterns of determination and insects and birds and all sorts of questions it's like that for the purposes of our class I will focus on the organisms that do have an XY pattern alright just because that's a little bit simpler who knows what they'll do with these genetics and maybe you can do a lot with your software which is the same so we're talking about sex determination alright typically females have 2X chromosomes typically males have X&Y obviously nondisjunction events can change that number of sex chromosomes but we'll talk about the normal so there is a type of hypertrichosis that's linked down so this is an example of what we would see is like an excellent inheritance pattern if the mother has the dominant alright version of the dominant allele and one version of the recessive allele we would expect half a person's to get the dominant version and the other half to get the recession because mothers always contribute 1X chromosome OK but because males don't have a second what determines that making them males and humans is the presence of a wider females get chromosomes from both mom and dad and so we would expect against statistically half of the mother's daughters which would receive the dominantly on the other half more often in pedigrees I will probably show you excellent recessive traits just because that's a little bit more in line with your book but it's not so definitely practice more excellent recessive so go back and look All right so all right they have 1X and 1Y the other half of the firm the eggs will always carry axes so an egg is fertilized by the sperm that has the X that's going to result in an X carrier type which typically develops OK if the sperm carries AY and fertilizes the egg we get males all right so X linked traits only be passed on to daughters and because males only have One X chromosome all their daughters get that X chromosome OK but the females have 2X chromosomes so half of their daughters might get one version and the other half would get together that makes sense so passed their packs from the zones on their daughter now when you're looking at like a pedigree remember individuals individual transparent sometimes you'll see carriers that's like partially shaded so that's actually what you see on this pedigree is that we see Danny and his brother are completely shaded and they both have hypertrichosis their sister has a lesser degree of hypertrichosis and this example we don't know who the parents are all right but we suspect that the maternal probably had again looking at a pedigree you can that even though we don't know parents of these offspring we don't know who Danny's mother and father are because all of the children have some degree of affected hypertrichosis all right first of all the sons have on your final exam that goes for like at least 4 generations or so she's like really apply those patterns like autosomal traits never skip a generation versus say autosomal dominant trait recessive traits different patterns all right in this case though form of hypertrichosis is actually predominant and all this time definitely and the sister is like a milder case that's an indication that it might not be completely dominant and it might be incompletely dominant alright so all the Madison dance immediate family have hypertrichosis this sister also has the disease congenital generalized hypertrichosis the type that he has effects where did Danny get his mutation This is just a more complex way of asking you where are you 2 assuming this weather is normal what is it possible for Danny to have a completely unaffected so this is a dominant trait you know let's say Denny's mother also has hypertrichosis someone has a blood type do you know what their genome is someone Father recessive not so hairy 1 his mother has hypertrichosis one extra chromosome capital Yep dominant all right then all of the daughters should have hypertrichosis because every daughter gets an extra chromosome from mom and one from dad and if mom always had at least one of those copies however just shows the dominant phenotype you would end up with that does not have hypertrichosis so this is just to ask you questions about like OK I'm showing you the dominant phenotype do you genotype is OK because that sounds like a lot on an exam OK but like I could do it with blood type I could do it with cats like I'll tell you a story about cats before I left the correct answer is if the mother is heterozygous it could be consumed why are males more frequently affected by recessive 1 all right good well males only have 1X chromosome dominant alright so if you've ever seen a tortoise shell cat alright those are terms that refer to cats that have both forms of black fur black shoes black fur right X chromosome that carries that polypeptide OK and the version of that that gene the Leo that orange masking allele is dominant OK so you either have the recessive version on the chromosome or orange does not cover up black or you have the dominant version on the X chromosome orange does cover up black OK if you are assuming in this case as a normal number of sex chromosomes what is it 6 it has to be a female only females are sorry I should preface Kevin has also had the same sex determination pattern with you OK so you don't have to write from the zone has talent OK now yeah consuming this most of the time quote that now why are bits of the cat orange and other bits are black all right so because females have two typically during embryological development one of those X chromosomes gets shut off OK very similar to how in theosis some of the DNA damage alright so if you are if you're reading through your book and you're understanding like and I think I talked about it a little bit in the video like how the process of making decisions for me now you guys confirm is different because eggs and sperm Who cares cellular implants something wrong hello you have to start with something big so that when it gets divided all the way down to that many cells each cell is still big enough to survive all right so when you make eggs in the process of meiosis you can't do it the same way you just instead of making four daughter cells in the process of making eggs you only make one daughter cell and you just combine all of the final file Chromosomes please all right now Barbara used to be done on females like ohh do you have far bodies if you do female alright so basically so The thing is is temporary logical females which chromosome gets condensed into a bar body varies among the cells so it's not the same so a calico cat orange furry you see is where the X chromosome that carried the dominant orange masking on wheel active and the other person that character was excessive massingill got bare bodied basically the dominant X chromosome the black for the opposite was the recessive allele on the X chromosome that was preserved so if I were to ask you the genotype of this path because we know a little bit about orange masking it has to be female it has to be heterozygous if we assume the normal number of sex basically now like there isn't anything in human females that you can see like a calico cat alright they've all females are different next chromosomes being expressed all right and it's not necessarily like an equal distribution so if you've ever seen a calico cat more black or more you're seeing I will probably ask you some questions on your final exam excellent traits all right so something like I would probably ask it to you like this forever the orange masking OK meaning that orange pigment covers up black treatment black female and to help you out I even have like potential clients where you could do I wouldn't put that on there all right but I don't like exactly how this plant squares because it shows more just separate from black like they're using great but what would you get from this All right so if these OK so John has the next chromosome that carries  Add row the alright black cat she has to be homozygous recess so if this firm meets up with this this so we would get a female but these are good umm yeah females involved this is probably one of the most confusing things that was kind of skeptical of some of the conclusions of mendelian genetics alright because he was doing his experiments before and the genetic material all right so remember some of these experiments were being done before we even knew what molecule was carrying studying fruit flies the problem with fruit flies was like metal had a lot of background and work off there were lots of superiorities of true breeding pea plants OK so the ones that were always purple no matter how many times you allow themselves one that we're always white ones they're always caught when they're always short regular left all the different varieties there was no such lineages of fruit flies surprise surprise reply he was trying to create these kind of lineages in his lab and figure this stuff out to use them as a genetic model like when you guys take genetics you're going to play around with fruit flies a whole bunch and you're actually going to some of his experiments right important conclusions also was that both mothers and fathers trying to in three months but there was kind of an unusual eye color pop up there but occasionally you get something up how much does Morgan start so the father had you would still see the same you know distribution of this trade off OK which version of the dominant version which one the recessive version all that stuff alright so when he crossed red eyes alright following the offspring had right up all right he's like OK cool it's normal dominant recessive like that's what we saw when mendel crossed through reading 3 plant likes all of the offspring had purple flowers so there's like cool alright fine alright so he's like OK this white guy mutation is respect when they did the cross again that's where the mother carried the white eyes.  examples of pessimistic expression now I've gone through it all regarding paths ohh there's multiple wheels OK umm I'm showing you this a lot of people enjoy themselves something about  you're not eating here I like to play around a little bit with pat no one comes to this room on Friday I won't be here we'll be zooming alright do come on Wednesday alright i like to ask questions on your final exam about burlington because i can explain it really quickly in the question like oh

200: The number 200 is an even integer and is considered a round number. It's significant in various contexts, such as mathematics, where it represents a whole number, and in other fields like economics and statistics. In Roman numerals, 200 is represented as CC. Additionally, 200 is often used as a benchmark in scoring systems, assessments, and various quantitative evaluations.