The Human Information Processing System
Levels of Analysis – The different ways cognitive phenomena can be studied, typically divided into computational, algorithmic, and implementational levels (Marr, 1982).
The Computational Theory – The highest level of analysis, focusing on what a cognitive system does and why it does it.
Representation and Algorithm – The middle level of analysis, concerned with how information is represented and manipulated to perform a cognitive function.
Implementation – The lowest level of analysis, addressing how cognitive processes are physically realized in the brain.
Cognitive Psychology – The study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
Cognitive Neuroscience – The study of the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes.
Mental Representation – Internal symbols or structures that stand for external objects, concepts, or events.
Cognitive Process – Any mental activity that processes information, such as attention, memory, or decision-making.
Local vs Distributed Representation – Local representation assigns one unit to one concept, whereas distributed representation encodes concepts across multiple units.
Automatic vs Controlled Processing – Automatic processes require little attention and occur unconsciously, while controlled processes require conscious effort and attention.
Sequential vs Parallel Processing – Sequential processing handles one task at a time, while parallel processing handles multiple tasks simultaneously.
Cascaded Processing – A mixture of sequential and parallel processing where later stages begin before earlier stages are fully completed.
Bottom-Up vs Top-Down vs Interactive Processing – Bottom-up processing is driven by external stimuli, top-down processing is guided by prior knowledge, and interactive processing combines both.
Symbolic vs Subsymbolic Processing – Symbolic processing involves discrete, rule-based representations, while subsymbolic processing involves continuous, distributed patterns (e.g., neural networks).
The Modularity Hypothesis – The idea that the mind consists of specialized, independent modules that process information separately.
Short-Term Memory – A limited-capacity memory store that holds information temporarily (about 15-30 seconds).
Long-Term Memory – A memory store with theoretically unlimited capacity that holds information for extended periods.
Procedural Memory – A type of long-term memory responsible for knowing how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike).
Declarative Memory – A type of long-term memory responsible for facts and events.
Episodic Memory – A subtype of declarative memory involving personal experiences and events.
Semantic Memory – A subtype of declarative memory involving general world knowledge and facts.
Questions About Levels of Analysis
What are David Marr’s (1982) three levels of analysis?
Computational (What does the system do and why?)
Algorithmic (How does the system do it?)
Implementational (How is it physically realized in the brain?)
What questions must we answer to have a computational theory?
What is the goal of the computation?
Why is this computation necessary?
What questions must we answer in order to have a theory at the level of representation and algorithm?
What representations are used?
What processes manipulate these representations?
What does it mean to say that we have a theory at the level of implementation?
It explains how the representations and processes are physically realized in the brain (e.g., neural mechanisms).
Which level(s) of analysis are of primary concern in cognitive psychology and cognitive science?
Primarily the computational and algorithmic levels.
Which level(s) of analysis are of primary concern in cognitive neuroscience?
Primarily the implementational level.
Questions About Representations
What levels of representation are involved in language comprehension and production?
Phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic levels.
What is the difference between local and distributed representations?
Local: One unit represents one concept.
Distributed: A concept is represented by patterns of activity across multiple units.
Questions About Processes
What do cognitive processes do?
They manipulate information to enable perception, memory, reasoning, and decision-making.
How can we tell the difference between controlled and automatic processing?
Controlled processes require attention, are slow, and effortful.
Automatic processes occur without conscious effort, are fast, and resistant to interference.
What is the difference between sequential and parallel processing?
Sequential processing occurs step by step.
Parallel processing handles multiple streams of information at once.
What is a cascaded process?
A process where later stages begin before earlier stages are completed, blending sequential and parallel processing.
What is the difference between bottom-up, top-down, and interactive processing?
Bottom-up: Stimulus-driven.
Top-down: Expectation-driven.
Interactive: Combination of both.
What is the difference between symbolic and sub-symbolic processing?
Symbolic: Rule-based, discrete symbols.
Sub-symbolic: Distributed representations, continuous processing (e.g., neural networks).
Questions About the Modularity Hypothesis
What is the Modularity Hypothesis?
The mind is composed of domain-specific, independent modules that process information separately.
What are the properties of modular systems?
Domain specificity, informational encapsulation, mandatory operation, and fast processing.
Questions About Human Memory
What is the difference between procedural and declarative memory?
Procedural: Knowing how (skills and habits).
Declarative: Knowing what (facts and events).
What are the types of declarative memory?
Episodic memory (personal experiences)
Semantic memory (general knowledge)
What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?
Episodic: Tied to personal experiences and specific events.
Semantic: General knowledge not tied to personal experience.
How are short-term memory and long-term memory different?
Short-term memory has limited capacity and duration (seconds).
Long-term memory has vast capacity and lasts much longer (potentially a lifetime).