Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics
Introduction to Virtue Ethics
Topic Overview: Presented by Daniel Star in PH150.
What is a Virtue?
Definition of a Virtue: A virtue is defined as a general, stable aspect of a person’s character that leads to ethically admirable actions.
Examples of Virtues:
Kindness
Courage
Self-control (temperance)
Patience
Loyalty
Fairness
Honesty
Generosity
Modesty
Cultural Specificity: Some virtues, like filial piety, may be culturally specific, while others like courage may be more universal.
Core Set of Virtues: There is reason to believe in a set of core virtues universally promoted across cultures.
Aspects of Virtues
Cognitive Aspect: Each virtue is associated with beliefs about when and how to act ethically (e.g., a kind person believes in appropriate helping behaviors).
Behavioral Aspect: The possession of virtue is demonstrated through actual behavior (e.g., one must attempt to help others to be considered kind).
Affective Aspect: Emotions accompany virtues; for instance, it is strange to label someone as kind if they lack sympathy.
Note: The affective aspect may not apply universally to all virtues.
Categories of Virtues
Practical vs. Intellectual Virtues:
Practical Virtues: Fairness, generosity, courage
Intellectual Virtues: Open-mindedness, intellectual courage, understanding
Basic vs. Non-basic Virtues: Cardinal virtues include temperance, courage, justice, and practical wisdom, which are traditionally regarded as fundamental.
Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value of Virtues:
Good in Itself: Fairness is considered good inherently.
Conditional Goodness: Courage is valuable only in the context of noble purposes.
Virtuous People
Definition of a Virtuous Person: A virtuous person is distinguished as an inherently good individual.
Possession of Virtues: A person is thought to be virtuous if they possess a certain number of essential virtues.
Debate on Number of Virtues: There is discussion on how many and to what extent virtues must be possessed.
Minimum vs. Maximum Virtue: Being minimally virtuous differs from being maximally virtuous; the former does not equate to moral sainthood.
Unity of the Virtues
Doctrine of Unity: It is proposed that in order to possess any virtue, one must have all virtues, a notion held by ancient Greek philosophers.
Real World Application: Actual virtuous individuals may only exemplify some virtues (e.g., kind but not wise).
Conclusion: The unity of virtues thesis appears to be flawed as it does not reflect the complexity of human character.
Aristotle’s Contribution to Virtue Ethics
Nicomachean Ethics Overview: Examination of Aristotle’s theory of virtue.
Human Purpose According to Aristotle:
The purpose of human beings is to live a life of rational activity in accord with virtue.
This lifestyle leads to happiness (eudaimonia), indicating happiness is the highest good for humankind.
Possession vs. Exercise of Virtue: Merely having good character traits is insufficient; one must actively engage these virtues through actions.
Doctrine of the Mean
Definition: Many virtues are illustrated as a mean between two extreme vices.
Example of Courage: Courage lies between cowardice (extreme fear) and rashness (extreme bravery).
Individual Variability: Individual dispositions may shift the ideal mean; a fearful person may aim closer to rashness, while a hasty person may need to temper towards cowardice.
Perspectives on Virtue and Ethics
Philosophical Views:
Some philosophers, like Elizabeth Anscombe, oppose modern moral philosophy’s focus on right and wrong principles.
Another viewpoint asserts that principles should be based on virtue rather than on abstract rights and wrongs.
Non-virtue ethicists are still interested in developing concrete accounts of virtue.
Elizabeth Anscombe's Critique of Modern Ethics
Essentials of Argument:
Anscombe’s seminal work critiques modern ethics for relying on principles devoid of a religious context.
She emphasizes virtues as inherently linked to human nature, countering obligation-based ethics.
Her critique contributed to the rise of the virtue ethics movement.
Principles of Virtue Ethics
General Principles: Virtue ethicists often accept the following:
An action is obligatory if it is one a virtuous person would perform in the same situation.
An action is impermissible if it is one a virtuous person would not perform in those circumstances.
An action is optional if it might be performed by a virtuous person.
Determining Rightness in Virtue Ethics
Assessment Model: Rightness is assessed by asking what a virtuous person would do.
Exemplary Figures: Reference figures like Jesus or Buddha for moral guidance.
Concerns: Questions arise regarding whether this approach provides adequate practical decision-making guidance.
Hursthouse’s Distinction in Virtue Ethics
Criteria of Rightness vs. Decision Procedure: This distinction is pivotal in how to apply virtue guidance practically.
Ultimate Criterion: A call to determine actions based on virtuous behavior as a benchmark.
Practical Procedure: Following rules associated with certain virtues is often more practical (e.g., Be courageous!).
Limitations: Some situations demand an inherent understanding of virtue to guide right action, necessitating practical wisdom.
Counterexample: Lack of Virtue
Case Study - John the Kleptomaniac:
John is depicted in dire circumstances, engaging in theft without virtuous intent.
Asserts that there are moral obligations even for those not exhibiting virtue.
Philosophical Implications: Acts of obligation exist outside of virtuous behavior; raises doubts on virtue ethics.
Ethical Dilemma in Moral Reflection
Euthyphro Dilemma Revisited: Transformed from a divine context to examining the virtuous individual’s role in determining rightness.
Analysis of whether acts are right due to their intrinsic nature or because a virtuous individual engages in them.
Defining Virtues
Identifying Virtues: Early reliance on commonsense identification of virtues, such as courage and justice.
Reduction of Complexity: The simplicity of identifying virtues without exploring deeper philosophical mechanisms is problematic.
Exploring Deeper Definitions of Virtue
Three Options for Deeper Virtue Understanding:
Consequentialist Perspective (David Hume): A virtue is a character state yielding positive consequences.
Aristotelian Perspective: A virtue is that which promotes human flourishing.
Contemporary View: A virtue enables a responsive approach to various values and reasons.
Virtue and Consequences in Ethical Framework
Critique of Consequentialist Approach: In a dystopian context where good virtues bring about negative outcomes, this perspective falters (e.g., dishonesty might seem virtuous).
Suggests the approach is flawed as it contradicts common moral understanding.
Flourishing and Virtue Ethics
Flourishing Framework: Define virtue as enabling human flourishing, positing this as a moral anchor for virtue ethics.
Action alignment proposed with flourishing derived from virtuous character states.
Rationale for Morality: It is argued that acting morally fosters human flourishing, similar to civil reasoning by Hobbes.
Philosophical Questions:
Is acting morally a purely self-interested endeavor?
Problematic Considerations:
Questioning the morality associated with self-interest.
Addressing why essential virtues correlate to flourishing.
Case Study Against Flourishing Ideal
Historical Analysis - Lorenzo the Magnificent:
An example of an unjust individual, Lorenzo, who flourished materially and socially despite profound moral failings.
Re-examining the Virtue Ethics Argument
Further Refinement of the Euthyphro Dilemma: Clarity emerges in evaluating if virtuous behavior aligns more with moral truth or is simply exceptional conduct.
Implicational Assessment: Observations suggest that if morality stems from what virtuous individuals do, it must be distinct from an independent moral understanding, questioning virtue ethics’ validity as a sole moral theory.