Presidencies of Truman & Eisenhower Notes

WW2 Ends, Cold War Begins

The Cold War significantly influenced US international and domestic politics.
The spread of communism was a major concern.
An arms race and a space race defined the era.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed.
The US had various allies and nations receiving aid.
European colonies existed during this time.
The Warsaw Pact was formed by socialist countries aligned with the USSR.
Non-aligned nations also existed.

The Big Three Conferences

Yalta Conference (February 1945):
- US President Roosevelt, Soviet dictator Stalin, and British Prime Minister Churchill discussed the collective security of European countries.
- Stalin agreed to free elections in Eastern Europe after WW2 ended.
Potsdam Conference (July 17-August 2, 1945):
- US President Truman, Soviet dictator Stalin, and British Prime Minister Attlee.
- They agreed Germany and Berlin would be divided into occupation zones.
- Germany would hold elections, and all Allied troops would withdraw afterward.

Iron Curtain

Stalin did not allow elections and installed communist governments in Eastern Europe.
The Soviet Union took over parts of Eastern Europe for resources and as satellite states (Eastern Bloc).
In early 1946, Stalin gave a speech saying war was inevitable between capitalists and communists (the "Iron Curtain" speech).
Winston Churchill gave a speech calling the Soviet Union an "Iron Curtain," which Stalin interpreted as a call to war.
By 1946, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Poland were Soviet satellite states.

Containment Policy

Truman Doctrine (March 1947):
- Turkey & Greece were in danger of falling to communism.
- The US sent $400 million to support them.
- The US successfully prevented Turkey & Greece from falling to communism.
Marshall Plan (April 3, 1948):
- Successful in Europe and caused an economic boom in the US.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

Two months after the Marshall Plan, Stalin placed a blockade around East Germany.
He planned to take the whole city, assuming the US, Great Britain, and France would surrender due to war fatigue.
Truman refused to surrender.
For eleven months, the US and Great Britain dropped supplies into West Berlin from airplanes (The Berlin Airlift).
On April 4, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed by the Western bloc countries.
Countries began to criticize Stalin’s blockade.

Chinese Civil War

From 1927 to 1950 (with a break from 1936-1945 during WW2), the nationalist government of China, called the Kuomintang (KMT), fought the Communist Party of China (CPC) for control of China.
Mao Zedong led the communist party.
Chiang Kai-shek led the KMT.
Japan invaded China in 1937, and the two parties united to push them out.
The US supported the KMT, and the USSR supported the CPC.
The KMT failed, and Truman was criticized for the failure.

Korean War

The Korean peninsula was divided into 2 zones at the 38th parallel: the USSR took the North, and the US took the South.
In 1948, North Korea was established as a Communist country under Kim Il Sung, and South Korea was established as a Democratic country under Syngman Rhee.
By 1950, the US withdrew most troops, while Stalin sent military and financial aid to North Korea for an invasion.
June 25, 1950: North Korea invaded South Korea.
US and UN sent troops to support South Korea but continued to be pushed back.
September 15, 1950: US General Douglas MacArthur launched a successful counterattack that pushed the communist forces North to the Chinese border.
China (a Communist country) felt threatened as the US force (democracy) came so close to the Chinese border.
Cease-fire (pause) on July 1953.
A Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) was established.

Vietnam War

Vietnam was a French colony, but communist rebel fighters fought for independence.
Ho Chi Minh was the leader of Viet Minh (communists).
The US sent aid to France to prevent the spread of communism.
China and the USSR sent aid to Viet Minh.
France surrendered to Viet Minh in May 1954.
Vietnam split into 2 like Korea.
North was communist under Minh.
South was under President Ngo Dinh Diem.
The US continued to send aid to Diem (force rebelling against communism) so he would set up a stable government.
1954: Minh declared war on south.

Domestic Policies

Domestic policies were passed to transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy.
The economy struggled after the war, but Congress took control to help the economy.
The GI Bill (Serviceman’s Adjustment Act) of 1944 helped war veterans receive government loans & other benefits.
The Marshall Plan helped Western European economies rebuild, and these countries purchased American goods, which helped the American economy.
1946: The National Interstate and Defense Highway Act constructed 41,000 miles of Interstates and highways.
Many Americans could afford to achieve the “American Dream.”

Popular Culture

By the end of the 1950s, 2/3 of American homes had TVs.
TVs became huge for advertising.
News was much more accessible.
Many TV shows like sitcoms became popular (e.g., Howdy Doody, Rin Tin Tin, Bob Hope, I Love Lucy).
Rock and Roll became popular; loved by teens but not approved by many parents; banned from many radio stations and schools.
After Elvis Presley appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show, Rock and Roll was more normalized.

Second Red Scare

In 1947, Truman established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program.
Over 3 million Americans (especially government officials) were investigated for communist activity → 200 were fired & 3,000 resigned.
The House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated communism within the movie industry.
Many people (movie stars, directors, actors, and actresses) were imprisoned or had their lives ruined over accusations.
HUAC thought films contained communist propaganda.
1948: High-ranking government official Alger Hiss was accused of being a Soviet spy.
Hiss was charged with perjury and sent to prison.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg helped the USSR.
They were found guilty of espionage and executed in June 1953; later discovered that they were actually spies.
They claimed they were being persecuted for being Jewish and members of the Communist Party.
Senator Joseph McCarthy continued the Second Red Scare in the 1950s.
He said there were still communist spies in the US but mostly without concrete evidence.
He claimed Democrats were responsible.
McCarthyism refers to the unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without providing evidence, and it spread quickly.
McCarthy’s witch hunt ended in 1954 when the Senate accused him of improper conduct.
1954: He accused the US Army of communist activity.
The public was angry about the attack on war heroes.

Internal Security Act (McCarran Act)

Passed in 1950.
Vetoed by Truman but enacted by Congress.
The law would be overturned due to it violating the First Amendment (freedom of speech).
The Act made it illegal to plan any action that might lead to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship in the US.
By 1953, almost 40 states had passed laws making it illegal to speak of overthrowing the government.

Arms Race

The US and USSR entered a race to develop the first hydrogen bomb.
The US exploded the first H-Bomb on Nov. 1, 1952.
The Soviets exploded theirs in August 1953.
Eisenhower was willing to go to brinkmanship → edge of an all-out war.
The US military increased air force and cache of nuclear weapons.
Ex) The US threatened nuclear war in hopes of avoiding nuclear war.

Covert Operations

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used spies to gather information on the USSR and other unfriendly countries.
The CIA led many operations in foreign lands.
1951: Iran’s Prime Minister Mossadegh took control of oil fields from British companies.
The US gave millions to Iranians against Mossadegh & helped Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi return to power in Iran.

Middle East

The US supported the establishment of Israel in 1948 → made Arab enemies.
Egypt’s President Nassar made deals with both the US and USSR.
The US withdrew a loan to build a dam on the Nile River.
Nassar took control of the Suez Canal → owned by Great Britain & France.
Nassar refused to allow ships headed to Israel to pass.
The UN stopped the Suez War → Nassar kept control of the canal.
March 1957: The Eisenhower Doctrine was passed → stated the US would defend the Middle East against an attack from any communist country.

Soviet Suppression

The Truman Doctrine was tested in 1956.
The world found out the US would do nothing to free Soviet satellite states.
Hungarians revolted against the communist government.
Imre Nagy promised free elections, denounced the Warsaw Pact, & demanded Soviet troops leave Hungary.
November: Soviet troops arrived and killed 30,000 Hungarians.
The Soviets arrested Nagy and executed him.
Nagy was replaced with Soviet leaders.

Space Race

Stalin died in 1953 and was replaced with Nikita Khrushchev.
Khrushchev believed the US and USSR could coexist.
The Cold War continued and extended to space.
October 1957: The USSR placed the first man-made satellite in space (Sputnik).
On January 31, 1958, the US launched its own satellite called Explorer I.
The US created the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA).
The Space Race continued until the 1970s.