Labour Rebellions of the 1930s
The Labour Rebellions of the 1930s
Overview
Colonial officials and employers felt confident despite underlying resentment among working class and unemployed in British Caribbean colonies.
W.M. Macmillan's warnings were dismissed.
By mid-1930s, the situation was volatile, with early warnings disturbing the surface.
Early Signs of Unrest
Trinidad:
1933: Small demonstration of unemployed workers in Port of Spain.
1934: Larger demonstration of 400-500 unemployed workers, leading to a committee of enquiry.
Spontaneous strikes and demonstrations on sugar plantations.
Guyana:
1935: Strikes and disturbances on sugar plantations.
Jamaica:
1935: Strikes of port workers in out-port towns and banana loaders on Kingston wharves.
Wave of Militant Protest (1935 Onward)
Major social upheavals occurred across the Caribbean.
St. Kitts (1935)
Island dedicated to sugar production.
Workers' League formed in 1932, but trade unions were legally impossible.
January 28: Cane cutters at Shadwell plantation refused to start reaping due to low wages (8 pence/16 cents per ton).
News spread, and workers at the sugar factory also went on strike demanding a wage increase (wages had been reduced in 1930).
Workers on other plantations refused to start the crop.
At Lodge estate, the owner-manager threatened workers with a gun, but they disarmed him; the gun was unloaded.
Police arrested strikers at Estbridge estate.
Workers called for a general strike.
January 29: Militant mood, processions of workers, no work allowed.
At Buckley's plantation, manager fired into a crowd of strikers, injuring three or four.
Police arrived but workers demanded the manager's arrest.
Military force arrived, Riot Act was read, and armed men fired into the crowd, killing Allen and James Archibald, and Josephs Samuel, wounding eight others; fifty-five shots were fired, according to the official report.
British warship arrived, marines landed, and workers were terrorized.
Thirty-nine workers were arrested, and six were imprisoned for two to five years.
The upsurge was contained, but the workers' challenge was significant, marking a new spirit of working-class determination.
St. Vincent (1935)
Protest against rising retail prices due to increased customs duties, amidst static and low wages.
Governor arrived for a Legislative Council meeting (majority of colonial officials and nominated members, minority elected).
October 15: Governor introduced new taxation proposals and maintained high local tariff on sugar.
October 21: Angry crowd gathered to present grievances to George McIntosh, a Town Council member.
McIntosh sought an interview with the Governor.
Large crowd assembled with sticks, stones, and cutlasses.
McIntosh reported the Governor's willingness to receive a delegation later, arousing suspicions.
Demonstration became militant, and workers forced their way into the building.
Remarks shouted included: 'We can't stand any more duties on food or clothing'; 'We have no work…'; 'We are hungry'; 'Something will happen in this town today if we are not satisfied'.
The Governor adjourned the legislature.
The Attorney General was assaulted, and the Governor was pushed and struck.
Court House windows were smashed, and officials' cars were destroyed or damaged.
A crowd broke into the prison and released the prisoners.
The business premises of F.A. Corea were ransacked.
Armed police arrived, and the Governor took command.
The Riot Act was read, and the crowd at Corea's store was fired on; one person was killed, and several others were injured.
The riot spread beyond the city to Georgetown and Chateaubelair.
Telephone wires were cut, and bridges were destroyed.
Armed police and 'volunteers' guarded the cable and wireless station and the electricity plant.
British warship arrived, and military personnel were brought in from other islands.
October 22: A state of emergency was proclaimed.
The uprising was suppressed in the capital, but disorders continued in rural areas.
Demands were made for land, better wages, and better living conditions.
The state of emergency was maintained for three weeks.
Sheriff Lewis and Bertha Mutt played leading roles in the demonstrations.
McIntosh was arrested on a charge of treason felony.
The magistrate dismissed the case, and McIntosh emerged as the most popular leader of the working class.
St. Lucia (1935)
Strike of coal loaders.
The Governor mobilized the local military force and requested reinforcements from the British government.
A warship arrived, marines patrolled, and searchlights were used.
Workers returned to work to await the report of an official commission.
The commission rejected the workers' claim for increased pay.
Barbados (1937)
Clement Payne, born in Trinidad to Barbadian parents, arrived in Barbados and began holding street meetings to form a trade union.
Joined by Fitz Archibald Chase, Olrick Grant, Mortimer Skeete, Israel Lovell, and Darley Alleyne.
The Governor prosecuted Payne for making a false declaration about his place of birth.
Payne was fined £10 with the alternative of three months' imprisonment.
Payne appealed and led a march to Government House.
Payne was arrested and served with a deportation order.
Payne's supporters collected funds for his legal battles.
Grantley Adams represented Payne in the appeal, which was successful.
Payne was not released but deported to Trinidad.
In Trinidad, Payne was arrested for having forbidden literature.
Reaction in Barbados: Widespread rioting and disorder.
Shop windows were smashed, cars were pushed into the sea, and passers-by were attacked.
The police used firearms; 14 were killed, 47 injured, and over 500 arrested.
Chase was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment for inciting to riot.
Adams unsuccessfully challenged the validity of the deportation order.
Payne's request to return to give evidence to the West Indies Royal Commission was rejected.
Payne became a founding member and organizer for the Federated Workers' Trade Union in Trinidad.
Payne collapsed while addressing a meeting and died shortly afterward.
Trinidad (1937)
Strike in the oil fields led by Uriah Butler escalated into widespread rioting.
Police attempted to arrest Butler, resulting in a violent confrontation.
The governor summoned the navy to quell the disturbances.
14 killed, 59 wounded, and hundreds arrested.
A committee was appointed to mediate the dispute.
Jamaica (1938)
Working-class uprising escalated into an all-island general strike.
Widespread strikes and demonstrations followed in Guyana (1938 and 1939).
The Law and the Trade Unions
Prior to 1918, trade unions were illegal in British Caribbean colonies.
English common law proscription against activity in restraint of trade.
Local statutes made participation in combinations a criminal offense (e.g., Law 15 of 1839 in Jamaica).
Legislation initially designed to prevent emancipated slaves from combining to obtain better wages.
No prosecutions were instituted against organizers of unions of skilled workers formed in Jamaica during the first stage.
Employers were confident they could defeat employee organization attempts and did not want to draw attention to the illegality of unions.
Workers were aware of their vulnerable legal position.
1909: S.A.G. (Sandy) Cox asked the governor to introduce trade union legislation.
Colonial Office opposed due to American Federation of Labour influence.
1919: Trade union law enacted in Jamaica (did not confer immunity from liability for tort or breach of contract, nor legalize peaceful picketing).
June 1921: Similar legislation enacted in Guyana.
Trinidad: Policy moved towards repression rather than liberalization.
Habitual Idlers Ordinance of 1918: Discouraged indentured laborers from leaving plantations.
Strikes and Lockouts Ordinance: Prohibited strikes and provided for arbitration.
Industrial Court Ordinance (No. 26 of 1920): Designed to achieve the same purpose on a more permanent basis.
Seditious Acts and Publications Ordinance (No. 10 of 1920): Created the criminal offense of 'disaffection' against the King or the government.
Trinidad and Tobago failed to follow Jamaica and Guyana in introducing trade union enabling legislation.
One of the planks of the Trinidad Workingmen's Association in the 1925 election had been a demand for legislation making trade unions lawful.
Colonial Office was not persuaded to instruct the colonial governor to introduce trade union enabling legislation until 1932.
Trade union Bill introduced in the Grenada legislative Council in 1933.
Trade unions became lawful in all parts of the English-speaking Caribbean after the third wave of social upheavals in the late 1930s.
The 1930s Social Revolution
Overview
Before Emancipation: Frequent slave rebellions.
Post-Emancipation: Isolated strikes, riots, political organizations, and trade unions.
No significant movement until recent years.
1935 as a Starting point
1935: Initial Upheavals
General strike of agricultural laborers in St. Kitts.
Strike in oilfields of Trinidad, followed by a hunger march.
Strikes in British Guiana.
Disturbance in St. Vincent.
Coal strike in St. Lucia.
1936: Relatively Quiet
1937: Widespread Trouble
Strikes in Trinidad (June).
Upheaval in Barbados.
Strikes in British Guiana, St. Lucia, and Jamaica.
West Indian conditions brought to the attention of the British public.
1938: Public Awakening
General strike in Jamaica.
Strikes in British Guiana.
Approximately 46 deaths, 429 injuries, and thousands of arrests/prosecutions.
Underlying Factors for Increased Activity
Deteriorating Economic Conditions:
Prices of West Indian exports halved between 1928 and 1933.
Wage cuts, increased taxation, and unemployment.
Urban Migration:
Unemployed workers moved from plantations to towns.
Laborers repatriated from Cuba and San Domingo.
Long periods of unemployment led to bitterness, militancy, looting, and demonstrations.
Increased Political Consciousness:
Italian conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) led to mistrust of white government.
News of sit-down strikes in France and America followed with great interest.
Lack of Constitutional Machinery:
Government and employers hostile to collective bargaining.
Political constitution excluded workers from control over the legislature.
The general strike and the riot became the worker's only weapons.
Island-by-Island Analysis
St. Kitts
Tiny island of the Leeward group (population < 20,000).
Mostly plantations owned by Europeans.
Hardly any peasants.
Reactionary atmosphere.
Representative Government Association was concerned with political questions.
Workers' League and Universal Benevolent Association had limited membership.
Special West Indian Commission report in 1929 highlighted poor social conditions; no action was taken.
Sugar cane reaping season set for January 28, 1935.
Discussion among laborers about wage increases.
Employers did not intend to grant increases.
Governor reported that unemployed laborers started the strike movement.
They persuaded workers on plantations to strike for increased wages.
Numbers grew steadily leading to a general strike.
Crowd invaded an estate to demand higher wages; the proprietor fired upon them, wounding three.
Police arrived, opened fire, killing three and wounding eight.
The spirit of the strikers was broken.
Large numbers were arrested.
A warship arrived.
Everyone returned to work except prisoners and those refused re-employment.
Wages were not increased.
Sporadic upheaval with no permanent mark; no organizational leadership.
St. Vincent
Population of 50,000.
Political conditions quiet until October 1935.
Trouble due to government decision to increase customs duties; strict censorship on the press.
On October 21, while government debated in the Legislative Council, a crowd demanded to see the Governor and present a petition.
The Governor refused; the crowd became unruly, breaking windows.
Unemployed started looting.
Three killed, 26 injured.
The Governor declared a state of emergency and summoned a warship.
Prosecutions culminated in a treason trial that was thrown out by the magistrate.
Public reaction was amazement and resentment against repressive measures.
Workingman's Association formed with a radical program focused on land settlement and constitutional reform.
Association became the focus of radical opinion and a body of great political influence.
It represents the workers in all negotiations and has attracted middle-class support.
Its candidates were enthusiastically returned at the last general election.
St. Lucia
Population of 60,000.
Principal occupation: wage labor on plantations.
Important trade in supplying ships with coal.
Politically one of the quietest islands.
The Representative Government Association had died out.
Long record of sporadic strikes among coal workers.
One such strike occurred at the end of 1935.
The Governor mobilized the Volunteer force, summoned a warship, and had marines patrolling the streets.
The peaceful inhabitants deeply resented the show of force.
The Governor set up a committee to investigate the coal trade, and the strikers returned to work.
The committee reported that no wage increase was possible.
In August 1937, agricultural laborers on sugar plantations struck for higher wages, inspired by news of strikes elsewhere.
The Government was criticized for mobilizing force.
A committee was set up to investigate agricultural wages and recommended slight increases.
The first St. Lucian trade union was formed in January 1939, functioning as a general union of agricultural and urban workers.
Barbados
High population density (over 1,000 per square mile).
Plantations almost entirely in European hands.
One of the most reactionary governments in the West Indies.
In March 1937, Clement Payne arrived in Barbados, urging organization among the working classes.
The government looked for means of suppressing Payne.
Payne was charged with making a false statement as to his place of birth.
Large crowds followed him to and from the trial.
On July 22, he was convicted and fined £10; he appealed and announced a procession to the Governor's residence.
The police refused, resulting in Payne and followers being arrested and Payne ordered to be deported to Trinidad.
On July 26, the Court of Appeal quashed his conviction, but the deportation order remained and he was deported.
His supporters reacted with anger.
A large crowd assembled on the wharf; Payne was secretly sent off from another point.
Passions became uncontrollable, and the crowd marched to meetings in the Lower Green and Golden Square.
The mob spread through the city, smashing motor cars and electric street lamps.
Police were unable to make a single arrest.
The next morning, crowds smashed shop windows and cars.
Groups commandeered cars and spread the news.
Country people looted shops and raided potato fields.
In attempting to restore order, the police were forced to fire, killing 14 and wounding 47.
Over 400 arrests were made, including a young man sentenced to ten years for inciting discontent.
These disturbances opened the eyes of Barbadians to the existence of poverty.
The government began plans for old age pensions and legislation governing workmen's compensation, trade unions, and minimum wage machinery.
The Barbados Progressive League was born in August 1938, organizing trade unions and running candidates for election.
It attracted middle-class sympathy and is encouraged by workers' response.
Its views are expressed through the Barbados Observer.
British Guiana
Only a coastal strip developed.
Nearly half East Indians brought as indentured laborers.
Some Negro agricultural labor, but most in towns or in mining.
In 1919 British Guiana Labour Union was formed, rising to 12,000 members.
With the economic decline unions declined.
In September 1935, serious strikes demanded increased wages.
Labour Union was associated, calling for machinery for workers to represent grievances.
Towards end of 1936, the Manpower and Citizens' Association formed.
East Indian agricultural laborers easier to organize than Negroes.
Within two years, the Association attained 10,000 members.
Since September 1935, a series of strikes; the union exercised its influence in favor of collective bargaining.
In June 1938, the union advised workers to return to plantations and secured wage increases for them.
The Association published the Guiana Review, campaigning for reform.
Trinidad
Exports not predominantly agricultural.
Extracting and refining oil industry.
Since 1908 oil accounts for 60% of value of the island's exports.
Sugar and cocoa employ more people than oil.
Trinidad Workingmen's Association was formed in the 1890s.
Under Captain Cipriani (WWI) the Association grew to 120,000 members.
Devoted attention to legislative reforms.
Agitated for trade union legislation, factory legislation, social insurance schemes, minimum wage legislation, land settlement, constitutional reform, etc.
Responsible for forcing the government to introduce workmen's compensation.
There are 26 members of the Legislative Council; only seven are elected.
Controls the City Council of Port-of-Spain; used its power to improve working conditions of municipal employees, to initiate slum clearance, make Port-of-Spain one of the finest cities in the Caribbean, and to acquire the tramway system for municipal ownership.
Affiliated to the British Labour Party.
In 1932: government passed trade union legislation did not permit peaceful picketing or protect against actions in tort. Assocation decided on the advice of the TUC not to register as a union and changed its name to The Trinidad Labour Party.
In 1929 the Trinidad and Tobago Trade Union Centre was formed as a rival organization of 2,000 mainly in transport.
Short oilfield strike of February 1935 and hunger march to Port-of-Spain were engineered by Uriah Butler -TWA expelled member.
June 1937, workers all over the island were coming out on strike-party could neither lead nor restrain.
Oil Industry
Specific Oil Industry Grievances: cost of the Rise in the cost of living, and the Red Book (system for identifying the workers)
Specific strikes engineered by Uriah Butler
Government Appointed a Mediation Committee July 5. -Most had returned to work
Employer pay increase announced; lowest workers minimum increased; Three Shilling's Day
Employer pay increase announced July 10
Workers reject delegation after Employers offer various concessions.
Oilworkers Trade Union formed on July 25
Jamaica
The prosperity of Jamaica is bound up with the banana- in 1937 bananas accounted for 55% domestic exports with approximately 18% sugar
For the last few years there has been decline in the sugar industry and distress amongst the peasantry- Cuba Repatriation of Labored added to the unrest
Feb 1938 a parliamentary reply indicated some social unrest by unemployed ex Servicemen to Kingston etc.; the police dispersed the crowd August 1937
No progressive Trade Union, but survey in June 1938 revealed 12 organizations with Craft Basis,
Alexander Bustamante left in 1937; had Strenuous campaign meetings throughout the island with William Grant
Summary: Emergence from Years of Upheaval
Trade Unionism
New unions have emerged in bigger colonies for all the principal types of labour and The unions does not have adequate peaceful legislation
The Colonial administrations not did rid notions of unions as reasonable; The Union leadership does not exist solely wage for purposes
Politics
On both union and political front that a political the Labour government needed a social revolution.
The old system the Governor was able to put things only he preferred and was useless to enable dismissal as
On both the union and political fronts, the Labour government required a social revolution.
Under the old system, the Governor could implement policies according to their preference and was ineffective in addressing necessary dismissals.