Exploring the Grade 10 Curriculum in Global History Study Cards

The Encounter Between Europe and the Americas

The European Encounter with the peoples of the Americas brought the world's major civilizations together for the first time and provided new sources of wealth and raw materials. This significant historical event resulted in several transformative effects. Native American empires were conquered and often destroyed by the Spanish conquerors. Furthermore, the encounter led to an exchange of ideas, customs, and technologies known as cultural diffusion. This period ultimately shifted the center of global trading to Western Europe.

Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution first began in Europe during the Renaissance and continued into the $1700s$. This movement was fundamentally based on the scientific method, which entails observing nature, formulating hypotheses, and testing those hypotheses through rigorous experiments. During this era, scholars applied mathematics to science to reveal the underlying laws of nature, a prime example being Isaac Newton's law of gravity. Key figures who drove this movement include Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton.

Ottoman Empire ($1300–1918$)

The Ottomans, a nomadic Turkish group, emerged as the rulers of most of the Islamic world during this period. A pivotal moment in their expansion was the capture of Constantinople in $1453$, which they renamed Istanbul. This event effectively cut off European trade with Asia for a period of time. Under the rule of the Sultan from Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire reached its height in the $1500s$. Within the empire, Christians and Jews were tolerated and granted some limited means of self-government.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

The growth of the slave trade was driven by an intense demand for labor in the "New World." Africans were captured by other tribes and shipped to the Americas under horrendous conditions. Many Africans died during the arduous journey known as the "Middle Passage." The effects of this trade were devastating, as it disrupted African cultures and delayed population growth. It also encouraged constant warfare between African tribes. Conversely, it introduced African cultural influences throughout the Americas.

Enlightenment ($1700s$)

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that first began in France, England, Scotland, and Germany, and it is sometimes referred to as the Age of Reason. Enlightenment thinkers attempted to apply scientific reasoning to understand people and to improve society through meaningful reform. This movement challenged the divine right of kings, noble privilege, and the power of the Catholic Church. Key people of this era include John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and mary walstonecraft;.

Mughal and British India

Muslims invaded India in the $11th$ century and established various sultanates. In the $16th$ century, descendams of Mongols founded the Mental Empire in India-. During this time, Akbar the Great united india and recon- ciled Hindus ard Muslims. Later, Shah Jahan ended religious toleration and built the Taj Mahal. By the late $1800s$, Britain's East India Company had successfully gained control of most of India.

The French Revolution

The French Revolution was caused by inequality among the estates or social classes, unfair taxes, a bankrupt government, and the widespread spread of Enlightenment ideas. King Louis XVI summoned the Estates General, comprising the clergy, nobles, and commoners, to vote on new taxes. In response, the Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly and issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The revolution officially began when citizens seized the Bastille prison, leading to the end of noble privileges. During this era, Maximilien Robespierre launched a Reign of Terror against all suspected dissenters.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was a general during the French Revolution who seized power in $1799$ and later became emperor in $1804$. He established the Napoleonic Code, which combined traditional codified law with the principles of the revolution; most legal systems in Europe today are still based on this Code. Napoleon's armies conquered most of Europe, and he introduced French Revolutionary ideas to other Western European countries. However, his attack on Russia ended in catastrophe, and his army was eventually defeated by a coalition of European rulers, resulting in the French king being restored to the throne.

Restoration of Europe ($1814-1848$)

After the defeat of Napoleon, Europe's Great Powers met in Vienna to restore old rulers and cooperated to fight any future revolutionary ideas. This Congress of Vienna ($1814-1815$) saw statesmen establish a "balance of power" designed to keep any single country from becoming dominant in Europe. Prince Metternich specifically encouraged kings to prevent the spread of nationalism and revolution. Despite these efforts, the Revolutions of $1848$ broke out in France, Italy, Germany, and Central Europe. While most of these failed, France successfully declared itself a republic.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution first began in Great Britain in the $1750s$, founded on new inventions such as James Watt's steam engine. This period marked a shift in production from making goods by hand at home to mass production in factories. New sources of power, like steam, were applied to the manufacture of textiles, ships, and railways. This led to significant urbanization as people moved from the countryside to cities seeking factory work, resulting in the rise of capitalists and the working class as important new social groups.

Communism

During the $1800s$, workers labored under horrible and unsafe conditions for very low wages. In works such as The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that workers should unite and overthrow the capitalist class in a violent revolution. Marx urged the creation of a Communist society and an end to private property, where citizens would own the means of production in common. In the $20th$ century, several nations including Russia, China, and Cuba adopted the Communist system.

Nationalism

Nationalism is the belief that each nation or ethnic group should have its own state. An ethnic group can be defined by race, religion, language, or common ancestry. Nationalism acted as a unifying force in cases such as Italian unification, led by figures like Garibaldi and Cavour, and German unification under Otto von Bismarck. Conversely, it acted as a divisive force as ethnic divisions eventually destroyed several large multi-ethnic states, including Austria-Hungary ($1918$), the Ottoman Empire ($1919$), and the Soviet Union ($1991$).

Latin American Independence

During the Napoleonic Wars, Latin America remained self-governing. However, after Napoleon's defeat, the Spanish king was restored to the throne and tried to reimpose colonial rule. Latin Americans, resenting economic restrictions and exploitation, wanted to govern themselves. Influenced by the ideas of the American and French Revolutions, leaders such as Simón Bolívar spearheaded the movement. By the early $1800s$, most of Latin America had won its struggle for independence from Spain.

Imperialism and the Scramble for Africa

There was a revival of imperialism in the $1870s$ as Europe's Great Powers gained colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, with the U.S. and Japan also participating in Asia. This led to a flow of raw materials from the colonies to the imperial powers and brought advanced technology, medicines, and Christian beliefs to the colonies. However, native populations were treated as inferior, local boundaries and traditions were disregarded, and local people were forced to work in mines and plantations. The "Scramble for Africa" in the late $1800s$ saw imperial powers use technologies like railroads, armaments, and the telegraph to colonize the continent. This colonization was negotiated at the Berlin Conference ($1884$). Great Britain held colonies from South Africa to Egypt, including control of the Suez Canal; France held territories throughout Western and Central Africa; and Belgium held the Congo in Central Africa under King Leopold.

Resistance to Colonialism

Resistance to colonial rule took several forms. The Sepoy Mutiny ($1857$) was an uprising of Indian soldiers in the British army that was crushed by Britain, which then took over control of India from the East India Company. In the Opium War of the $1840s$, the Chinese tried to end opium imports, but the British used gunboats to defeat China and forced the opening of "treaty ports" controlled by Westerners. The Boxer Rebellion ($1899$) was a Chinese uprising against Western influence put down by an international force, which awakened Chinese nationalism.

The Rise of Modern Japan

The Tokugawa Shogunate ($1603-1868$) had previously closed Japan to all foreigners, trade, and Western ideas. This changed in $1853$ when Commodore Matthew Perry used the threat of naval force to "open" Japan. Following this, the Shogunate collapsed and imperial rule was "restored" under Emperor Meiji. The Meiji Emperor adopted Western technology, education, banking systems, and military tactics, allowing Japan to become the first non-Western nation to successfully adopt Western ways.

Decline of Empires

From the $18th$ century to the early $20th$ century, the Ottoman Empire gradually declined due to a failure to modernize, as Muslim leaders frequently opposed change and the empire did not keep up with Western technology. The empire also suffered from disunity because it was too decentralized, with the Sultan relying on provincial officials for governance. Nationalism played a role as Christian parts of the empire sought independence, and Russia took Ottoman territories while championing Slav peoples.

The Mexican Revolution of $1910$

In $1910$, Mexico's dictator was overthrown, leading to a civil war as different factions competed for power. After the war, the Mexican government adopted a constitution that established public education, universal voting, an $8 \text{-hour}$ workday, and the right for workers to strike. Large estates were broken up, and Church lands were seized and given to peasants, making Mexico more democratic.

World War I

World War I was a conflict between the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, U.S.) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Turkey). The causes included nationalism, economic rivalries, the alliance system, and militarism, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand serving as the immediate catalyst. The war introduced new weapons and tactics such as machine guns, submarines, airplanes, and trench warfare. The results included the harsh Versailles Treaty for Germany, the breakup of Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey, and the formation of the League of Nations.

The Russian Revolution ($1917$)

Before World War I, most Russians lived in poverty while the Tsar and nobles enjoyed immense wealth. After entering the war and losing many battles, food riots spread through Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown, and the subsequent provisional government was soon toppled by the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin. Promising "Peace, Bread, and Land," the Bolsheviks seized power, pulled out of the war, and founded the first Communist government. A Civil War ($1919-1921$) followed, which was won by the Reds (Communists) against the Whites (anti-Communists).

Treaty of Versailles ($1919$)

The Treaty of Versailles ended World War I and was marked by the Allies' desire for revenge. Germany was treated harshly: it was forced to accept blame for the war and pay huge reparations that nearly destroyed its economy. Germany lost its colonies, its navy, and was forced to reduce its army to a small police force. The treaty created the League of Nations, though the U.S. and the newly-formed Soviet Union refused to join.

Rise of Fascism and Nazism

Fascism developed in Italy, Germany, and Spain following World War I, characterized by extreme nationalism, the glorification of violence, and racism. The system demanded absolute devotion to a party leader, condemning democracy as feeble and asserting that an all-powerful leader should embody national ideals. This was instituted in the $1930s$ under Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. In Germany, Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party, speaking against the Weimar Republic and the Versailles Treaty. In his book Mein Kampf, he claimed Germans were a superior race and accused Jews of causing Germany's problems (anti-Semitism). The Nazis seized power in $1933$, eliminating rivals, restricting Jews, and rebuilding the military while using the Gestapo secret police to inflict terror.

Joseph Stalin

After Lenin died, Joseph Stalin took power in the Soviet Union by $1925$, establishing a brutal regime. He conducted political purges, killing opponents or sending them to gulags (slave labor camps) in Siberia. Through collectivization, land was seized from peasant owners and turned into collective farms. His Five-Year Plans controlled all aspects of the economy, transforming the nation from an agricultural to an industrial power. During World War II ($1939-1945$), the Soviets fought off a Nazi invasion at the cost of approximately $20,000,000$ Russian lives.

Japan's Rise to Power

Japan industrialized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration, which intensified its need for raw materials and markets. Japan emerged as an Asian power after the Russo-Japanese War, marking the first time a European power was defeated by a non-European nation. Japan was rewarded with former German colonies for its participation in World War I. Later, the Second Sino-Japanese War saw Japan begin its takeover of China, and the attack on Pearl Harbor brought Japan into World War II against the United States.

World War II ($1939-1945$)

World War II was a global conflict between the Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan) and the Allies (Britain, U.S., Soviet Union). Causes included a weak League of Nations and Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement at the Munich Conference, which gave Hitler part of Czechoslovakia. The Hitler-Stalin Pact ($1939$), a non-aggression pact, led to the conquest of Poland. Aggression continued as Japan attacked China ($1937$) and Pearl Harbor ($1941$), while Germany invaded Russia ($1941$).

Effects of World War II

The effects of the war were profound, including the Holocaust, in which $6,000,000$ Jews and $6,000,000$ others died in concentration camps. The war ended after the U.S. dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Axis dictatorships were defeated; Germany was occupied and divided, and Japan was occupied by the U.S. military. Nazi leaders were tried for war crimes and genocide at the Nuremberg Trials. Finally, the United Nations was created as a new world peace organization to include all nations.

The Cold War

The Cold War was a global competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union that increased after World War II. Despite Stalin's pledge at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet army did not withdraw from Eastern Europe and put Communist governments in power instead of holding elections. Winston Churchill used the term "Iron Curtain" in $1946$ to describe how Eastern Europe was cut off from the West in terms of trade and communications. The two sides formed opposing military organizations: NATO, formed by Western Europe and the U.S. for collective security against Soviet invasion, and the Warsaw Pact ($1955$), an alliance of Eastern European countries allied with the Soviet Union created in response to NATO.

Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine

In $1947$, the Truman Administration took steps to counter the Soviet Union. The Marshall Plan provided billions of dollars in aid to Western European countries to rebuild their economies and prevent Communist revolutions. The Truman Doctrine was announced when Communist rebels arose in Greece and Turkey; Truman stated the U.S. would support all free peoples resisting Communism, a policy known as containment, and provided military aid.

The Cuban Revolution ($1959$)

Fidel Castro toppled the Cuban dictator and formed a Communist state supported by the Soviet Union. The Bay of Pigs was a failed attempt by U.S.-backed Cuban exiles to incite a rebellion. In $1962$, the Cuban Missile Crisis occurred when an American spy plane discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and threatened an invasion, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war until Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for a pledge that the U.S. would not invade Cuba.

Mao Zedong and Communist China

In $1949$, Communists under Mao Zedong drove Nationalist forces led by Chiang Kai-Shek to Taiwan. Once in power, Mao controlled all aspects of life, executing businessmen and wealthy farmers. Communist beliefs became required learning in schools, and the government controlled all media, art, and music to promote Communism. Key events included the Great Leap Forward, a Five-Year Plan that failed to industrialize China and involved peasant land collectivization, and the Cultural Revolution, an attempt to reinvigorate Communism using Red Guard students to force educated people to perform manual labor on farms. China also entered the Korean War ($1950-1953$) on the side of North Korea, which ended in a stalemate.

The Vietnam War

After France withdrew, Vietnam was divided into a Communist North under Ho Chi Minh and a pro-Western South. Reunification elections were never held because the South feared rigging in the North. Guerrillas known as the Viet Cong started a war with Northern help; by $1964$, over $500,000$ U.S. troops were involved. Despite advanced technology, the U.S. could not defeat North Vietnam, and troops withdrew in $1973$. Vietnam ultimately took over the South and unified under Communist rule.

Indian Independence

Mohandas Gandhi, the father of non-violent passive resistance, led the struggle for Indian independence, which was finally won in $1947$. Major actions included the Salt March in $1930$ to protest the British salt tax, boycotts of British goods, and the promotion of cottage industries to raise living standards. After World War II, a weak Britain partitioned the country into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan; thousands died in the religious riots that followed the partition.

South Africa and Apartheid

In $1948$, white Afrikaners created the apartheid policy, which persecuted black South Africans and removed their basic rights. Blacks resisted both peacefully and violently. In $1989$, after years of economic sanctions, F.W. DeKlerk was elected and repealed apartheid legislation. DeKlerk and Nelson Mandela negotiated a constitution and multiracial elections. Mandela became South Africa's first black president and served two terms.

Mikhail Gorbachev and the Soviet Collapse

In $1985$, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of a stagnant Soviet Union losing a war in Afghanistan. He introduced Glasnost (greater freedom of expression) and Perestroika (limited economic reforms like small private businesses). In foreign policy, he withdrew from Afghanistan and held summits with the U.S. These reforms led to the demise of the Soviet Union as Communists lost free elections in $1989-1990$ and ethnic groups demanded independence. A failed coup in August $1991$ discredited the Communist Party, and Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus broke away to form the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Israel-Palestinian Conflict

Palestine was under British control until the end of World War II. In $1948$, the U.N. carved Israel out of Palestine as a Jewish nation. Arabs declared war but were defeated, leading to tens of thousands of Palestinians fleeing. Major Arab-Israeli Wars occurred in $1948$, $1967$, and $1973$. Following $1967$, Israel occupied the West Bank and Gaza. The Camp David Accords ($1978$) resulted in peace with Egypt, while the Oslo Accords ($1993$) saw Israel agree to a Palestinian Authority in the West Bank.

Islamic Fundamentalism

Islamic Fundamentalism is the belief that Muslims should strictly follow Islamic law and resist Western influence. The Iranian Revolution ($1979$) saw the pro-Western Shah overthrown and Ayatollah Khomeini establish a religious state, during which the U.S. embassy in Tehran was seized. In Afghanistan, Muslim rebels overthrew a Soviet puppet government, and the Taliban set up an extreme government later overthrown for sheltering al-Qaeda. In $2014$, ISIS took over substantial territory in Iraq.

Deng Xiaoping

Deng became China's ruler after Mao died in $1976$. He attacked the leaders of the Cultural Revolution and sought a gradual change to a free market while maintaining Communist Party power. He encouraged private enterprise and passed laws to spur foreign investment, increasing trade with the West. However, in $1989$, the government brutally crushed student demonstrations for democracy in Tiananmen Square.

War in Iraq and Afghanistan

Radical Islamic ideas led to anti-Western regimes. In Afghanistan, the Taliban was overthrown by the U.S. for protecting al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. In Iraq, Saddam Hussein's regime was invaded after September $11$, leading to a religious war between Sunnis and Shia Muslims. When the U.S. withdrew, ISIS took parts of Iraq.

European Union

The Common Market was formed in $1957$ as a free-trade zone among France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands. In $1991$, it was replaced by the European Union, which grew to include eight Eastern European countries and merged national currencies into the Euro. In $2016$, Great Britain's citizens voted to leave the union in a move known as Brexit.

Global Environmental and Population Issues

Overpopulation has grown from $1 \text{ billion}$ people $200$ years ago to $7.5 \text{ billion}$ today, threatening food and resource shortages. Industrialization and growth have led to water pollution from sewage, air pollution resulting in acid rain and ozone thinning, and millions of tons of solid waste in landfills. Climate change is causing desertification in regions like the Sahel, leading to starvation in Africa. Deforestation is removing trees that provide oxygen and unique plants with medical uses.

International Terrorism and the Shia-Sunni Conflict

Terrorism is the use of violence against civilians for political purposes, including hijackings and bombings such as the September $11$ attacks. Groups like ISIS, Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Taliban use terrorism and radical ideology. A long-standing dispute in Islam exists between Sunnis, who believe leadership should be a community member, and Shia, who believe it should be a family member of Mohammad. ISIS, a Sunni group with an estimated $30,000$ fighters, seeks a pure Islamic state and operates as a global terrorist organization.