Exhaustive Notes on 19th Century Progress and Liberal Reform in Latin America

General Context: The course is presently operating on a condensed schedule, specifically a $4$ week time period, which the instructor acknowledges is a high-intensity workload.
Waiver Requirement: Every student in the program must have a parent or guardian sign a waiver form. This waiver must be emailed back to the instructor as soon as possible; today is the preferred deadline.
Daily Agenda: The session is content-heavy, including a primary source analysis, restructuring/elaboration on previous topics, and scheduled breaks to manage energy levels during the long period.

Historical Timeline:
- The $1820$ s: Characterized by an initial wave of liberalism following independence.
- $1830$ s– $1850$ s: Characterized by the rise of conservatism and the dominance of caudillos.
- Mid-Century (starting in the $1850$ s): A resurgence of liberalism occurred across Latin America, which is the primary focus of the current study.
Regional Tension: Battles and political tensions between liberals and conservatives were prevalent in nearly every region of Latin America during the mid- $1800$ s.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana:
- Role: A prominent caudillo and dictator in Mexico.
- Timeline: Ruled on and off between the $1830$ s and the $1850$ s.
- Background: In the $1830$ s, US colonists fought Mexican forces under his command. He promised to convince the Mexican Congress to recognize the Republic of Texas, but most Mexicans did not acknowledge the agreement.
The Mexican-American War ( $1846$ - $1848$ ):
- Cause: The United States sought to expand its territory, specifically into California. Mexico viewed this expansionism as a direct attack.
- Outbreak: The US president convinced Congress to declare war on Mexico.
- Duration: The conflict was described as short-lived.
- Resolution and Costs: The war ended with the United States gaining control of Texas and California. In exchange, the US paid Mexico a sum of $\$15,000,000$ for damages incurred during the war.

Technological Advancements: Following the mid-century investments, Latin America experienced a significant "transportation revolution."
- New Technologies: Introduction and spread of steamships, railroads, the telegraph (a precursor to the telephone), and electricity.
The Concept of "Progress":
- Progress became the "word of the day" for the Latin American elite.
- The elite viewed modernization and new technology as inevitable and desirable.
- Political Shift: While people still followed caudillos, liberals began to gain a political advantage because they were more closely aligned with these technological advancements and the goal of modernization.

Benito Juarez:
- Identity: An indigenous man from the Zapotec group in Southern Mexico.
- Significance: He was not a military man, but a lawyer who represented a new generation of liberals. During this period, he was often viewed as "strange" or "abnormal" by his contemporaries.
Key Liberal Laws:
- Ley Juarez (Juarez Law): Attacked the "Fuero" system (special privileges for the military and clergy).
- Ley Lerdo (Lerdo Law): Abolished communal land ownership. This was significant because the Catholic Church and indigenous communities both held land communally.
The Constitution of $1857$ :
- Individual Rights: Guaranteed freedom of speech and freedom of the press.
- Social Reform: Called for the abolition of slavery.
- Economic Reform: Highlighted private property rights and mandated an end to communal land ownership.
- Religious and Educational Reform: Removed Catholicism as the official state religion and established secular, non-religious public education.

The War of the Reform ( $1857$ - $1861$ ):
- Cause: Conservative reaction to the liberal Constitution of $1857$ . Conservative clergy, military leaders, and large landowners were angered by the document.
- Conflict: A civil war broke out between liberals and conservatives.
- Outcome: The liberals, under the leadership of President Benito Juarez, won the war in $1861$ .
The French Invasion of Mexico:
- Economic Trigger: After the civil war, President Juarez stopped repaying foreign debts to rebuild the Mexican economy. This angered foreign creditors.
- External Intervention: During the civil war, conservatives had reached out to the French King, Napoleon III (distinct from the original Napoleon Bonaparte), for assistance.
- Maximilian I: Napoleon III supplied Mexican conservatives with an emperor, Maximilian. France essentially placed their own monarch in charge of the country.
Resistance and National Identity:
- The French invasion fueled a sense of Mexican nationalism against the foreign occupiers.
- Benito Juarez led a resistance movement and allied with the United States. The US supported Juarez because the French presence threatened US foreign investments in Mexico.
- Resolution: Napoleon III eventually withdrew his forces. Maximilian was captured and executed. Benito Juarez was reinstated as president, and the conservatives never returned to power in Mexico after this event.

Comparison to Mexico: Brazil followed a different trajectory than much of Spanish-speaking Latin America.
Monarchical Context:
- Brazil was a monarchy under Pedro I and later Pedro II.
- It remained a slave-owning society for much of the century.
Pedro II:
- Characterization: Often considered Brazil's greatest king.
- Ideology: He was a liberal who believed in science and progress.
- Goal: He wanted Brazil to transition away from being a monarchical and slave-owning society.
The End of Slavery and Monarchy:
- Princess Isabel: The daughter of Pedro II and an abolitionist.
- The Golden Law ( $1888$ ): Signed by Princess Isabel, this law abolished slavery in Brazil after four centuries. Brazil was one of the last nations in Latin America to end slavery.
- The Republic: Shortly after the abolition of slavery, the military proclaimed Brazil a republic. The royal family fled to Europe, terminating the monarchy.
Conclusion: By the end of the $1800$ s, liberalism served as the official ideology for nearly every Latin American nation.

Student Question: "Can we go back a couple back to, like, the taking religion out of public education in… I don't know what I wrote in my notes, but it was after the end of, like, communal land ownership."
- Instructor Response: The instructor clarified that these points refer to the Constitution of $1857$ . Key provisions included lessening the power of the Catholic Church, implementing secular education, and the move toward private property over communal ownership.
Student Question: "Really quick. You said the military names, they were a… the military's name, they were a what?"
- Instructor Response: "Republic. Thank you."
Student Question: "Does all the information have to be based on this slideshow or do you like to use the research?"
- Instructor Response: Students can conduct outside research, but all necessary information for the course content is contained within the textbook or the presentation slides.

Activity: Students are directed to Canvas to locate a document titled "Civilization versus Barbarism."
Objective: Read and analyze the document to discuss the themes of progress and reform in a historical context.