Comprehensive Study Notes: Nigerian Peoples and Culture (GST 122)

Introduction to Culture

• Culture is a fundamental concept in social studies representing the totality of a people's way of life, including beliefs, values, customs, language, and social institutions.

• Edward Burnett Tylor describes culture as a "complex whole" shaping human behavior and social organization.

• In Nigeria, culture is significant due to ethnic diversity comprising over $250$ ethnic groups, such as the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa-Fulani.

• Each group possesses distinct practices, languages, and traditions influencing systems of governance and economic activities.

• Culture defines identity, fosters belonging, and mediates the interaction between traditional values and modern influences.

• Definitions of Culture:

  • Edward Burnett Tylor ($1871$): In Primitive Culture, he defined it as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

  • Clifford Geertz ($1973$): Described it as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life."

  • Bronislaw Malinowski ($1944$): Viewed culture as a functional system satisfying human economic, social, and psychological needs.

• Basic Definition: The totality of a people’s way of life in a society, comprising language, religion, food, cuisine, festivals, and rites.

Features of Culture

• Learned and Acquired through Socialization: Culture is not biological or instinctive. It is learned through continuous interaction with parents, peers, schools, and religious institutions. For example, greeting elders by kneeling or prostrating is a learned practice.

• Shared and Collective: It exists within a group to make coordinated social life possible. Shared culture reduces conflict and promotes unity by creating common expectations (e.g., the sequence of events in a traditional marriage).

• Transmitted Across Generations: It is passed down formally through education or informally through storytelling, proverbs, and rituals. Oral traditions and chieftaincy institutions preserve this continuity.

• Dynamic and Subject to Change: Culture evolves due to internal developments and external factors like globalization, colonization, and technology. Modern digital communication has reshaped language and fashion.

• Complex and Integrated Whole: Elements like beliefs, laws, and art are interconnected. A change in one aspect (e.g., religion) often triggers changes in others (e.g., moral laws).

• Symbolic in Nature: Humans use symbols to interpret their world. Language is the primary symbol, but clothing (e.g., Yoruba agbada, Igbo isi agu) also symbolizes identity and status.

• Adaptive and Responsive: Culture helps people survive in their environment. For instance, riverine communities in the Niger Delta focus on fishing, while Northern communities focus on farming and pastoralism.

• Normative and Regulatory: It provides rules and standards (norms) for behavior, backed by formal sanctions (laws) or informal sanctions (social disapproval).

• Satisfies Human Needs: According to Malinowski, it meets biological (food/shelter), social (belonging), and psychological (identity) needs.

• Defines Identity: It shapes individual and group identity through language, dress, and festivals, fostering solidarity.

Classification of Culture

• Material Culture: Physical, tangible things created and used. Examples include:

  • Traditional items: Igbo carved wooden stools, clay pots, and masks; Yoruba talking drums.

  • Clothing: Ishiagu, babariga, agbada, and buba.

  • Housing: Transition from mud houses with thatched roofs to modern concrete buildings.

  • Modern technology: Smartphones, cars, and modern clothing influenced by globalization.

• Non-Material Culture: Intangible aspects guiding thought and behavior. Examples include:

  • Beliefs: Ancestral spirits or deities like Sango.

  • Language: Igbo, Hausa, or Yoruba languages.

  • Values: Respect for elders expressed through prostrating.

  • Traditions: Festivals like the New Yam Festival among the Igbo.

  • Religion: Influence of Christianity and Islam on moral decisions.

Cultural Diversity in Nigeria

• Ethnic and Racial Diversity: Over $250$ groups like Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo with unique marriage rites and food.

• Linguistic Diversity: Over $500$ languages spoken. It distinguishes people even within the same ethnic origin.

• Religious Diversity: Coexistence of Christianity, Islam, and Traditional African Religions, each with distinct festivals (e.g., Ramadan vs. Easter).

• Socio-economic Diversity: Differences arising from economic foundations.

  • Yoruba: Farming, trade, and urban-centric political systems under kings.

  • Igbo: Small-scale farming and trade, leading to decentralized achieving-oriented cultures.

  • Hausa-Fulani: Agriculture, pastoralism, and long-distance trade, creating hierarchical emirate structures.

  • Niger Delta: Culture centered on fishing and riverine settlement.

• Gender and Lifestyle Diversity: Expectations regarding gender roles influencing family structure and discourse.

Challenges and Solutions Associated with Culture

• Challenges:

  • Ethnic and Tribal Conflicts: Strong identity as a source of suspicion or violent clashes over land and political power.

  • Resistance to Change: Rejection of modern education or technology seen as a threat to tradition.

  • Gender Inequality: Cultural norms limiting women’s roles, such as inheritance restrictions or early marriage.

  • Harmful Traditional Practices: Forced marriages and practices violating health and human rights.

  • Language Barriers: Misunderstandings due to the hundreds of languages spoken.

  • Incompatibility with Law: Customary laws on marriage or property often conflict with the Constitution.

• Strategies for Tackling Challenges:

  • Promotion of National Unity: Programs like the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) to foster intercultural interaction.

  • Education and Re-orientation: Raising awareness to identify beneficial vs. harmful practices.

  • Legal Reforms: Ensuring the Constitution prevails over harmful customary laws.

  • Dialogue: Engaging traditional and religious leaders to advocate for reform.

  • Economic Empowerment: Reducing poverty to decrease rigid attachment to divisive identities.

  • Selective Preservation: Maintaining positive values (respect for elders) while reforming harmful ones.

Pre-colonial Nigerian History, Culture, and Art

• Rejection of Eurocentric Claims: Thinkers like Hegel ($2001$) and Hugh Trevor-Roper ($1965$) falsely claimed Africa had no history or development before colonialism. Trevor-Roper stated, "The rest is darkness."

• Proverbial Rebuttal: "Until the lions have their historians, the tale of the hunt will always glorify the hunter."

• Reality: Pre-colonial societies had functioning political systems, indigenous religions, healthcare (herbal medicine), and advanced trade (barter and local exchange).

The Yoruba Ethnic Group

• Origin: Ile-Ife is the spiritual home; Oduduwa is the founding figure. Expansion led to kingdoms like Oyo, Ijebu, and Ondo.

• Art: Bronze and terracotta heads found in Ile-Ife dating to the $11th-15th$ centuries show high sophistication.

• Political System (Oyo Empire):

  • The Alaafin: The king and head of government; a constitutional monarch with limited powers.

  • The Oyomesi: A council of $7$ chiefs led by the Bashorun. They could compel an unjust Alaafin to commit suicide by presenting an empty calabash.

  • The Ogboni Society: Secret society of elders checking the power of both Alaafin and Oyomesi.

  • The Aare Ona Kakanfo: Military commander; expected to be fearless and lived outside the capital.

• Religion: Supreme God is Olodumare. Intermediaries called Orishas include Sango (Thunder), Ogun (Iron/War), and Osun (Fertility). Divination is performed via the Ifa system and Babalawos.

• Socioeconomics: Based on agriculture (yam/cassava) and trade. Cowries were used as currency. Markets were often led by women.

The Hausa-Fulani Ethnic Group

• Hausa Origin: Legendary figure Bayajidda from the Middle East killed a serpent in Daura, married the queen, and fathered the founders of the Hausa Bakwai (Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Gobir, Rano, Biram, Daura).

• Fulani Origin: Migrated from Senegambia; were mostly pastoralists.

• Political Evolution:

  • Pre-$19th$ Century: Independent city-states ruled by a Sarki assisted by the Galadima (administrator), Madawaki (military), and Waziri (adviser).

  • Post-$1804$ Jihad: Usman dan Fodio established the Sokoto Caliphate. The Sultan of Sokoto became the political/religious head; regions were governed by Emirs under Sharia law.

• Religion: Transitioned from indigenous Bori cult (spirit possession) to Islam in the $14th$ century.

• Socioeconomics: Agriculture (millet/sorghum), pastoralism, and trans-Saharan trade (leather, textiles, salt). Kano was a hub for indigo dyeing.

• Scholarship: Used Arabic and Ajami scripts for legal and historical records.

The Igbo Ethnic Group

• Origin: Traced to Eri, who descended from the sky to the Anambra area. Archaeological sites in Igbo-Ukwu show bronze works from the $9th$ century.

• Political System: Primarily decentralized or "acephalous."

  • King (Igwe/Eze): Custodians of tradition, often elected, with power checked by councils.

  • Okpara: Heads of extended families forming the Council of Elders.

  • Age Grades: Groups responsible for community tasks and decision enforcement.

  • Title Societies: Nze and Ozo societies conferred authority.

  • Village Assembly: Direct democracy involving adult members.

• Religion: Supreme God is Chukwu. Deities include Ala (Earth goddess) and Amadioha (Thunder).

• Socioeconomics: Agriculture centered on Yam (symbol of wealth/masculinity). Used barter, cowries, and Manillas (metal currency) for trade.

Minor Ethnic Groups (Ijaw and Tiv)

• Ijaw:

  • Origins: Ancient delta settlements associated with the deity Egbesu.

  • Governance: House System (extended family units) and the Amanyanabo (king) with power balanced by a Council of Chiefs.

  • Economy: Fishing, canoe building, and salt trade.

• Tiv:

  • Origin: Migrated from Cameroon; ancestor is Takuruku.

  • Governance: Segmentary lineage system with no centralized kings; elders made decisions by consensus.

  • Economy: Yam and millet farming.

Measurement of Time, Seasons, and Numbers

• Indigenous Systems: Based on natural events (sunrise, overhead sun, sunset). Night was marked by the moon, stars, and cock crows.

• The Week: Many used a $4$-day cycle.

  • Igbo Week (Izu): Eke, Orie, Afo, and Nkwo. Linked to rotating markets.

  • Yoruba Week: Traditionally $4$ days, later sometimes $5$.

• The Month and Year:

  • Igbo Month (Onwa): $7$ market weeks = $28$ days (lunar cycle).

  • Igbo Year: $13$ months with adjustive days.

• Calculation: Used fingers, toes, stones, seeds, and cowries. Priests (Dibia) served as official timekeepers.

• Challenges: Reliance on weather (cloud cover obscured the moon), lack of precision (no hours/minutes), and lack of uniformity across ethnic groups.

• External Influence: Islamic prayer times introduced structured observation in the $11th$ century. Portuguese brought clocks in the $15th$ century, but mechanical devices only dominated during British colonial rule.

Nigeria Under Colonial Rule

• Phases of Occupation:

  • $1849$: Appointment of Consul John Beecroft to the Bights of Benin and Biafra.

  • $1861$: Annexation of Lagos Island under Oba Dosunmu/Governor Henry McCallum.

  • $1900$: Creation of North and South Protectorates.

  • $1914$: Amalgamation of North and South by Lord Frederick Lugard.

• Governors-General List:

  1. Frederick Lord Lugard ($1914-1919$)

  2. Hugh Clifford ($1919-1925$)

  3. Graeme Thomson ($1925-1931$)

  4. Donald Cameron ($1931-1935$)

  5. Bernard Bourdillon ($1935-1943$)

  6. Arthur Richards ($1943-1948$)

  7. John Macpherson ($1948-1955$)

  8. James Robertson ($1955-1960$)

• Indirect Rule System: Administered through traditional rulers. Successful in North (Emirs); moderately successful in West (Obas); failed in East leading to artificial "Warrant Chiefs" and the $1929$ Aba Women's Riot.

Impacts of Colonialism

• Positive: Political unification, modern governance structure, Western education, English Common Law, infrastructural development (railways/ports), global economy integration, urbanization, and prohibition of harmful practices (e.g., stopping the killing of twins).

• Negative: Economic exploitation, uneven regional development (South vs. North), destruction of local crafts (blacksmithing/textiles), cultural disruption, divide-and-rule tactics, and suppression of indigenous resistance.

Evolution of Nigeria as a Political Unit

• Background to $1914$ Amalgamation:

  • Financial: North was debt-ridden; South had revenue from trade. Amalgamation allowed the pooling of resources.

  • Efficiency: Reducing administrative duplication of governors.

  • Economic: Integrating railways and communication for resource extraction.

  • Lugard's "Dual Mandate": Serving both British interests and local development.

• Impacts of Amalgamation:

  • Positive: Creation of a single state, unified market, growth of cities like Lagos as a capital.

  • Negative: Artificial state creation (diversity lumped without consent), regional imbalance, financial grievances from the South, and marginalization of minority groups.

Nationalist Movements and Political Parties

• Factors Behind Nationalism: Western education, economic exploitation, racial discrimination in administration, and global Pan-Africanism.

• Key Parties:

  • NNDP ($1923$): Founded by Herbert Macaulay (father of nationalism).

  • NYM ($1934$): First truly national organization; included Azikiwe and Awolowo.

  • NCNC ($1944$): Macaulay and Azikiwe; mass movement in the East.

  • Action Group ($1951$): Awolowo; advocated federalism and free education.

  • NPC ($1949$): Bello and Balewa; represented Northern interests.

• Independence: Attained on October $1$, $1960$.

Challenges of Nation-Building: Military Rule

• First Coup ($January 15, 1966$): Led by Nzeogwu; overthrew Balewa's civilian government due to corruption and the rigged $1965$ Western region elections.

• Major Coups List:

  • $July 29, 1966$: Counter-coup; Gowon takes power.

  • $July 29, 1975$: Murtala Mohammed removes Gowon.

  • $February 13, 1976$: Failed Dimka coup; Obasanjo takes over.

  • $December 31, 1983$: Buhari removes Shagari.

  • $August 27, 1985$: Babangida removes Buhari.

  • $November 17, 1993$: Abacha overthrew Shonekan (Interim Gov).

  • $1999$: Abdulsalami Abubakar hands over to elected President Obasanjo.

• Impacts of Military Rule:

  • Positive: Preserved unity during the civil war, created states (from $4$ to $12$, then $36$), infrastructure development (Abuja city), and discipline (Buhari's War Against Indiscipline).

  • Negative: Suppression of democracy, human rights violations (Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa, $1995$), corruption, and the annulment of the $June 12, 1993$ election.

The Nigerian Civil War ($1967-1970$)

• Cause: Violence against Igbos in the North and the declaration of Republic of Biafra by Ojukwu on $30 May 1967$.

• Resolution: Biafra surrendered in $January 1970$. Yakubu Gowon declared "No victor, no vanquished."

• Outcomes: Federal government adopted "$3Rs$: Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, and Re-orientation." Resulted in state creation to weaken ethnic power blocs.

Trade and Economics of Self-Reliance

• Indigenous Markets: Periodic cycles ($4$/$8$ days). Centrality of women in local trade; men in long-distance trade.

• Apprenticeship System:

  • Igbo (Igba-Boi): Senior masters train youth ($5-7$ years); apprentice is "settled" with capital to start a business.

  • Yoruba: Focus on crafts like blacksmithing and weaving.

• Significance: Promoted specialization and economic security without external dependence.

Social Justice and Law

• Definitions of Law:

  • John Austin: "Command set by a superior to an inferior being, enforced by sanctions."

  • Roscoe Pound: "A tool of social engineering."

• Classification:

  • Public vs. Private: State relations vs. individual relations.

  • Civil vs. Criminal: Disputes vs. offenses against the state.

  • Substantive vs. Procedural: Rights vs. mechanisms for enforcement.

• Hierarchy of Nigerian Judiciary:

  1. Supreme Court (Highest).

  2. Court of Appeal.

  3. High Courts (Federal/State), Sharia Court of Appeal, Customary Court of Appeal.

  4. Magistrate/Area/District Courts (State-governed).

• Judicial Review: Section $1(3)$ allows courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

Fundamental Human Rights (Chapter IV of $1999$ Constitution)

• Key Rights:

  • Section 33: Right to Life (exceptions: death penalty, self-defense, preventing escape, suppressing riot).

  • Section 34: Right to Dignity (prohibits torture/slavery).

  • Section 35: Right to Personal Liberty.

  • Section 36: Right to Fair Hearing (presumption of innocence).

  • Section 37: Private and Family Life.

  • Section 38: Freedom of Religion.

  • Section 39: Freedom of Expression/Press.

  • Section 40: Peaceful Assembly/Association.

  • Section 41: Freedom of Movement.

  • Section 42: Freedom from Discrimination.

  • Section 43-44: Property ownership and compensation for acquisition.

• Redress: Section $46$ allows citizens to apply to the High Court for enforcement.

Citizenship (Chapter III)

• Acquisition:

  • By Birth (Section 25): Based on indigenous parents/grandparents. Only citizens by birth can be President/Governor.

  • By Registration (Section 26): For foreign women married to Nigerians or people with Nigerian grandparents.

  • By Naturalization (Section 27): Residence for at least $15$ years, good character, and oath of allegiance.

• Dual Citizenship: Permitted only for Nigerians by birth.

• Deprivation (Section 30): Citizenship by birth cannot be taken away; others can be deprived if disloyal or convicted of a crime within $7$ years of naturalization.

Norms and Values

• Norms: Standards of behavior.

  • Proscriptive: What NOT to do (e.g., stealing).

  • Prescriptive: What SHOULD be done (e.g., helping a stranger).

  • Formal (Written): Codified laws.

  • Informal (Unwritten): Folkways (casual conventions) and Mores (moral standards).

• Values: Deeper beliefs (Honesty, Integrity, Hard work).

• Civic Responsibilities (Section 24): Obey laws, pay taxes, respect the flag/anthem, declare income honestly, and assist law enforcement.

Social Vices and National Development

• Cultism: Origins in the Pyrates Confraternity ($1952$) founded by Wole Soyinka. Now causes campus violence and drug abuse.

• Kidnapping: Ransom, political, or ritual purposes. Causes economic stagnation and trauma.

• Yahoo-Yahoo: Cybercrime glamorized among youth, harming international image.

• Examination Malpractice: Undermines educational integrity.

National Development Programs

• Operation Feed the Nation ($1976$): Obasanjo; aimed at food self-reliance.

• Green Revolution ($1980$): Shagari; focused on mechanized farming.

• War Against Indiscipline ($1984$): Buhari; instilled "queue culture."

• MAMSER ($1987$): Babangida; social mobilization for economic recovery.

• National Orientation Agency (NOA): Established in $1993$ (Decree $100$) for public enlightenment, value re-orientation, and bridging the gap between government and citizens.