Ch. 1
1.1
Psychology: the scientific study of the mind and behavior
Psychologists use scientific method to acquire knowledge
to apply scientific method a researcher with a question about how/why something happens will propose a explanation (hypothesis), to explain the phenomenon
hypothesis should fit into the context of a scientific theory, which is a broad explanation(s) for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time
theory is the best understanding we have of that part of the natural world
researcher then makes observations or carries out an experiment to test the validity of hypothesis
results are then published or presented at research conferences so that others can replicate or build on results
Psychological science is empirical, based on measurable data
Scientists study mental processes indirectly by measuring closely related observable behaviors, biological indicators, and self-reports —» use that information to make inferences about the mind
this is scientific method (also a form of empiricism)
Empirical method: for acquiring knowledge is based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
Ology: suffix that denotes “scientific study of”
1.2
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was a german scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist
famous book titled “Principles of Physiological Psychology” was published in 1873
viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience and believed that the goal of psychology was to identify component of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experiment
Introspection: process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed (used this)
believed in the notion of voluntarism—that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating
also wrote “Volkerpsycholegie” in 1904 which he suggested that psychology should include the study of culture as it involves the study of people
in his laboratory with his students would conduct experiments on, for example, reaction times
little agreement between him and individuals on introspection
William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Pierce, helped establish functional psychology
accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and viewed this theory as an explanation of an organisms’s characteristics
idea of natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment including their behavior
adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected
Functionalism: psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world (James’ perspective)
focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment
2nd meaning: functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism
James relied on more objective measures including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history, an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis
hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which has an apparent physical cause
theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind
his view was that the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness
believed it could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent sips of the tongue
Psychoanalytic Theory: the role of a person’s ‘unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades
Freud’s ideas were influential, for instance many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life
many of his other ideas are controversial
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886,1941), and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) were German psychologists who immigrated to the US in the early 20th century to escape nazi Germany
credited with introducing psychologists in the USA to various Gestalt principles
Gestalt translates to “the form in its whole” a major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception
Early work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflect, in which an animal or human produced an unconscious reflex response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus
worked with salivation in response to the presence of food
John B. Watson (1878-1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins university
thought the study of consciousness was flawed
since he believed that the objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control
Behaviorism: observing and controlling behavior
major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism
B.F Skinner (1904-1990) was an American psychologist and behaviorist
concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences, so he spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior
part of his research included a chamber that allowed the carful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment
device known as an operant conditioning chamber/skinner box, has remained a crucial resource for researchers studying behavior
his focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence
Humanism: a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior
asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met, higher-level needs would begin to motivate behavior
the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was an American psychologist who like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people
used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy
client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in therapy sessions
believed a therapist needed to display 3 features to maximize the effectiveness of this approach: unconditional positive regard, genuine, and empathy
By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging
this perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution
by 1967, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled “Cognitive Psychology” which served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country
Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of the movement
an American linguist (1928—) that believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to reincorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior
1.3
American Psychological Association (APA)
professional organization representing psychologists in the US
largest organization of psychologists in the world and its mission is to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people
Association for Psychological Services (APS)
founded in 1988 and weeks to advance the scientific orientation of psychology
founding resulted from disagreements between members of the scientific and clinical branches of psychology within the APA
Biopsychology explores how our body influences our behavior
many biological psychologist want to understand how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior
typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior based in the physiology of a human or other animal, evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior
Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information work within the area of sensation and perception
Cognitive psychology is the area that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development across a lifespan
interested in processes related to physical maturation
Personal psychology focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique
research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation
personality traits are consistent patterns of thought and behavior, and many have proposed that five trait dimensions are sufficient to capture the variations in personality seen across individuals
include consciousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion
Social psychology focuses on how we interact with and relate to others
Health psychology focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors: known as biopsychosocial model
Sport and exercise psychology study the psychological aspects of sports performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing
Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior
Counseling psychology focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy
Forensic psychology that deals with questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system
1.4
PhD: a doctor of philosophy degree
Dissertation: a long research paper or bundled published articles describing research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s doctoral training
Postdoctoral training programs: available before going on to serve as faculty
PsyD: doctor of psychology degree that is increasingly popular among individuals interested in pursuing careers in clinical psychology