unit 3

The scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the lifespan, from conception to death.

Stability

The degree to which certain traits or behaviors remain consistent over time.

Change

The process through which individuals develop new traits, behaviors, or abilities over time.

Nature

The influence of genetic inheritance and biological factors on development.

Nurture

The impact of environmental factors, experiences, and learning on development.

Continuous Development

The idea that development is a gradual, cumulative process without distinct stages.

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Discontinuous Development

The idea that development occurs in distinct stages, with qualitative differences between them.

Cross-Sectional Research

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time to study developmental differences.

Longitudinal Research

A research method that studies the same individuals over an extended period to track developmental changes.

Physical Development

The biological changes in the body, including growth in size, strength, and motor skills.

Teratogens

Environmental agents (e.g., drugs, chemicals, viruses) that can cause harm to a developing fetus during pregnancy.

Maternal Illnesses

Health conditions in a pregnant person that can negatively affect fetal development.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A condition caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol, leading to physical, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities.

Genetic Mutations

Changes in DNA sequences that can affect development and lead to variations or disorders.

Rooting

A newborn's reflexive turning of the head and opening of the mouth in response to touch on the cheek, aiding in breastfeeding.

Visual Cliff

An experimental apparatus used to study depth perception in infants.

Critical Periods

Specific time frames during development when an individual is particularly sensitive to environmental influences.

Imprinting

A rapid, innate learning process in which a young animal forms an attachment to a caregiver during a critical period.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, indicating learning and memory.

Maturation

The biological process of growth and development that enables orderly changes in behavior.

Adolescence

The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits directly involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries, testes).

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits not directly involved in reproduction but associated with sexual maturity (e.g., breast development, facial hair).

Menarche

The first menstrual period in females, marking the onset of reproductive capability.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation of sperm in males, marking the onset of reproductive capability.

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation and fertility in females, typically occurring in middle age.

Gender and Sexual Orientation

The study of how biological sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation develop and interact.

Sex

The biological classification of individuals as male, female, or intersex based on anatomy and genetics.

Gender

The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male, female, or nonbinary.

Sexual Orientation

An individual's enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to others.

Role

A set of expectations about how individuals in a particular social position should behave.

Gender Role

Societal expectations about appropriate behaviors, attitudes, and activities for males and females.

Gender Identity

An individual's deeply felt sense of being male, female, or another gender.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that individuals learn gender roles and behaviors by observing and imitating others.

Gender Typing

The process by which children acquire the behaviors, preferences, and attitudes associated with their gender.

Androgyny

The combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics in one individual.

Social Script

Culturally defined guidelines for how to behave in specific social situations.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge, including thinking, reasoning, and remembering.

Jean Piaget

A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children.

Schema

A mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to 2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (2 to 7 years), characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects (e.g., volume, mass) remain the same despite changes in appearance.

Reversibility

The ability to mentally reverse actions or operations, a key skill in Piaget's concrete operational stage.

Egocentrism

The inability to see things from another person's perspective, common in Piaget's preoperational stage.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (7 to 11 years), marked by logical thinking about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development (12+ years), characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Lev Vygotsky

A Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development.

Scaffold

Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner master a task.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks a learner can perform with guidance but cannot yet perform independently.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tend to increase with age.

Dementia

A group of disorders characterized by a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss and impaired reasoning.

Communication and Language Development

The study of how humans acquire and use language to communicate.

Language

A system of symbols and rules used for communication.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language.

Grammar

The system of rules governing the structure and use of language.

Syntax

The rules for arranging words into sentences.

Universal Grammar (UG)

The theory that humans are born with an innate capacity for language.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds produced by infants.

Babbling

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds produced by infants, typically around 6 months.

One-Word Stage

The stage in language development when children use single words to communicate (around 1 year).

Two-Word Stage

The stage in language development when children use two-word phrases to communicate (around 2 years).

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which children use short, simple sentences without function words.

Overgeneralization

Applying grammatical rules too broadly, often seen in early language development (e.g., 'goed' instead of 'went').

Aphasia

A language disorder caused by brain damage, affecting the ability to speak, understand, read, or write.

Broca's Area

A brain region involved in speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A brain region involved in language comprehension.

Linguistic Determinism

The idea that language determines thought.

Linguistic Relativity

The idea that language influences thought and perception.

Social-Emotional Development

The study of how individuals develop emotional regulation, social skills, and relationships.

Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory that development is influenced by multiple environmental systems.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which an individual interacts (e.g., family, school).

Mesosystem

The connections between microsystems (e.g., home and school).

Exosystem

External environments that indirectly influence development (e.g., parents' workplace).

Macrosystem

The broader cultural context that influences development (e.g., societal norms).

Chronosystem

The dimension of time and how it affects development (e.g., historical events).

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and caregiver.

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting style with high demands and low responsiveness.

Authoritative Parenting

A balanced parenting style with high demands and high responsiveness.

Permissive Parenting

A lenient parenting style with low demands and high responsiveness.

Neglectful Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness.

Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style where children feel safe and supported by their caregiver.

Insecure Attachment

An attachment style where children feel uncertain or anxious about their caregiver's availability.

Avoidant Attachment

An insecure attachment style where children avoid or ignore their caregiver.

Anxious Attachment

An insecure attachment style where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation.

Disorganized Attachment

An insecure attachment style characterized by inconsistent or confused behavior toward the caregiver.

Strange Situation

A procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment styles in children.

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced by a child when separated from a caregiver.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear or wariness of unfamiliar people, common in infants.

Basic Trust

Erikson's concept of a sense of security developed in infancy through consistent care.

Temperament

Innate personality traits, such as activity level and emotional reactivity.

Self-Concept

An individual's understanding of themselves, including their abilities and characteristics.

Parallel Play

A stage of play where children play alongside but not directly with others.

Pretend Play

A type of play where children use imagination to create scenarios and roles.

Adolescence

The transitional period between childhood and adulthood.

Imaginary Audience

The belief that others are constantly watching and judging one's behavior, common in adolescence.

Personal Fable

The belief that one is unique and invulnerable, common in adolescence.

Social Clock

Culturally defined timelines for achieving life milestones (e.g., marriage, career).

Emerging Adulthood

A transitional period between adolescence and full adulthood (18-25 years).

Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson's theory that individuals progress through eight stages of social and emotional development.

Trust and Mistrust

Erikson's first stage (infancy), where infants develop trust or mistrust based on caregiver reliability.

Autonomy and Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second stage (toddlerhood), where children develop independence or self-doubt.

Initiative and Guilt

Erikson's third stage (early childhood), where children explore their abilities or feel guilt.

Industry and Inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage (middle childhood), where children develop competence or feelings of inadequacy.

Identity and Role Confusion

Erikson's fifth stage (adolescence), where teens explore their identity or experience confusion.

Intimacy and Isolation

Erikson's sixth stage (young adulthood), where individuals form close relationships or feel isolated.

Intimacy

The ability to form close, loving relationships.

Generativity and Stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage (middle adulthood), where individuals contribute to society or feel stagnant.

Integrity and Despair

Erikson's eighth stage (late adulthood), where individuals reflect on their lives with satisfaction or regret.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood that can negatively impact development and health.

Identity

A sense of self, including values, beliefs, and goals.

Social Identity

The part of identity derived from group memberships (e.g., race, gender).

Achievement (of Identity)

The successful resolution of identity exploration and commitment.

Diffusion (of Identity)

A lack of exploration or commitment to an identity.

Foreclosure (of Identity)

A state where an individual has committed to an identity without exploration.

Moratorium (of Identity)

Active exploration of identity without yet committing to one.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information through observing events, watching others, or through language.

Associative Learning

A learning process where a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)

A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs automatically in response to a stimulus, often associated with classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that is influenced by the consequences that follow it, central to operant conditioning.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning during which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is learned.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

A behavior therapy technique that conditions new responses to stimuli that previously triggered unwanted behaviors.

One-Trial Conditioning

A form of learning where only a single pairing of stimulus and response is needed to establish an association.

Biological Preparedness

A predisposition to learn certain associations more easily due to evolutionary factors.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is influenced by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.

The Law of Effect

A principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to recur, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

A device used to study operant conditioning with animals, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a reward.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment, influencing behavior.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Punishment

Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

The addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Naturally reinforcing stimuli that satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water).

Secondary Reinforcers

Reinforcers that acquire value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

Reinforcement Discrimination

Learning to respond differently when reinforcement is available versus when it is not.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that have been associated with reinforcement.

Shaping

A procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with learned responses.

Learned Helplessness

A mental state in which an organism believes it has no control over its environment, often leading to passive behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has passed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a response is rewarded after unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.

Social Learning Theory

A theory that suggests people can learn new behaviors through observation and imitation of others.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning the consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for it.

Model (Modeling)

The process of learning through observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action, thought to be involved in learning through imitation.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior intended to benefit others.

Antisocial Behavior

Behavior that is harmful or lacks consideration for the well-being of others.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution without trial-and-error behavior, often described as an 'aha' moment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated in behavior.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of physical spaces that help in navigation and understanding environments.