Exhaustive Notes on Nigerian History, Art, and Culture up to 1800

The Conceptual Nature and Significance of Culture in Human Society

Centrality of Culture: Culture is foundational to human existence and civilization. Indigenous peoples practice and preserve it across generations to ensure the survival of their way of life.
Social Harmony: The existence of peace and harmony within communities is a significant indicator of the cultural inheritance received from ancestors.
Social Identity: The uniqueness of any social group is highlighted by its elegant culture, which shapes human lives and makes individuals conscious of their identity and roots.
Cultural Exhibitions: These events allow indigenous communities to share mutual understanding and form bonds that assist them in achieving collective goals and life aspirations.
Origins of Human Distinctions: Issues of race, identity, belief systems, language, fashion, eating habits, and dance emerge from an understanding of specific cultures and long-term interactions with the natural environment.
Etymology: The term "culture" is derived from the Latin word colere, which means "to cultivate."
Conceptual Definitions: * Nigeria’s National Cultural Policy ( $1988$ ): Culture is the totality of the way of life evolved by a people to meet the challenges of their environment. It provides order and meaning to social, political, economic, aesthetic, and religious norms, distinguishing one group from its neighbors. * Emmanuel Williams Udoh ( $2017$ ): Culture is the entire social custom of humanity; a convention of a specific people acquired and transmitted by group members. * Rangel ( $2022$ ): A social phenomenon reflecting the characteristics of a particular society, consisting of acquired traits like beliefs, habits, values, art, music, language, rituals, and knowledge. * Adefuye ( $1992$ ): The sum total of a people's way of life, including perceptions of the world that underlie behavior. * Ajayi ( $2005$ ): A specific lifestyle and acquired experience used to interpret occurrences, which engenders communal behavior. * Taylor ( $1871$ ): The whole of capabilities and habits of man as part of society, including both material (concrete) and non-material (abstract) aspects.
Types of Culture: * Non-material Culture: Refers to non-physical aspects learned through socialization, including norms, values, religion, philosophy, music, dance, drama, festivals, ceremonies, and folklore. * Material Culture: Concrete objects produced and used by a society.

Characteristics and Elements of Culture

Historical and Shared: Culture is a totality of a way of life that is historically created and shared by all members of a society.
Transmission: It is not genetically transmitted but is learned through the socialization process.
Dynamic and Universal: Culture is universal but also variable and dynamic. It grows over generations as new items are added to existing traditions.
Human Uniqueness: Only the human species possesses the complexity to learn, communicate, store, and process information in the form of culture.
Moral Force: Culture acts as a guide for human action and behavior within a society.
Unity and Diversity: While all humans have culture, cultures are not identical. A distinction is made between "culture" (the way of life of human societies as a whole) and "a culture" (the way of life of a specific society).
Enculturation: The process by which an individual is introduced to the culture of their birth, transmitting values, norms, and beliefs from one generation to another.
Social Learning Mechanisms: Culture is learned through observation, instruction, reward, punishment, and experience.
Symbolic Nature: Symbols (words, objects, gestures, sounds, images) are central components. Symbolism allows humans to attach arbitrary meaning to things, emphasizing the domain of meaning over practical rational behavior.
Elements of Culture: * Values: Concepts of what is good, proper, and desirable versus bad or improper. They serve as benchmarks for evaluating actions. * Norms: Standard patterns of behavior. Formal norms are written and punishable; informal norms are generally understood but not recorded. * Sanctions: Rewards (medals, gratitude) for adhering to norms or penalties (fines, imprisonment, unpleasant stares) for defying them. * Culture Traits: The smallest units or "building blocks" of culture, analogous to a cell in the human body. Several traits form a culture complex.

Epistemological and Cosmological Explanations of Culture

Epistemology: The theory of knowledge dealing with its limits, sources, and methods. Core components are Knowledge, Belief, and Truth.
Cultural Epistemology: Focuses on how culture is produced and expressed to make human experience understandable. It provides a sense of security by ordering the world.
Knowledge-Based Affect Theory (KBAT): Asserts people produce culture to feel they understand their world. It involves three dimensions of cultural production: * Articulate * Typify * Orient
Sources of Cultural Heritage Knowledge: Traditional, Archaeological, Scientific, Historical, Local/National/International regulations, and Community consultations.
African/Nigerian Epistemology: Interprets reality within cultural and traditional experiences, viewing knowledge as the understanding of the nature of forces and their interaction, independent of Western conceptual frameworks.
Cultural Cosmology: The worldview and belief system of a community based on their understanding of the order of the universe and their relation to the heavens.
Nigerian Worldviews: These revolve around how groups see death, marriage, childbirth, festivals, and family life, which defines peace and harmony in communities.

Nigeria’s Geographical Setting and Physical Environment

Location: Situated in West Africa, sharing land boundaries totaling $4,234\,km$ with the Republic of Benin, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon.
Coordinates: Latitudes $4^{\circ}00' N$ to $14^{\circ}00' N$ and Longitudes $2^{\circ}50' W$ to $14^{\circ}45' E$ .
Total Area: $923,768\,sq.\,km$ ( $913,768\,sq.\,km$ land and $10,000\,sq.\,km$ water).
Water Resources: Estimated $226\text{ billion } m^3$ of surface water and $40\text{ billion } m^3$ of ground water.
Topography: Includes a low plateau of about $600\,meters$ ( $2,000\,feet$ ) above sea level, with a coastline of about $850\,km$ along the Gulf of Guinea.
Climate: Varies from arid in the north to tropical in the center and equatorial in the south. It is controlled by two air masses: dry wind from the Sahara and wet wind from the Atlantic Ocean.
Seasons: * Wet Season: April–October, characterized by south-westerly winds. Daily average speeds can rise to $15\,m/s$ . * Dry Season: November–March, characterized by north-easterly winds with lower speeds.
Vegetation: Varies by climate. The Guinea Savannah (tall grasses/trees) lies north of the forest. The southern margin of the Guinea Savannah is called the "derived savannah."
Wildlife: Includes leopards, golden cats, monkeys, gorillas, wild pigs, and rodents like the cane rat. Northern savannah features guinea fowl and quail. Rivers host crocodiles and hippopotamuses.

Culture and Ethnic Groups in Nigeria

Diversity: Nigeria contains over $250$ ethnic groups. Peoples are broadly divided into two zones: Forest and Savannah/Grassland.
Forest Belt Peoples: * Southwest/South-South: Yoruba, Edo, Urhobo, Itsekiri. * Southeast: Igbo, Ibibio, Ekoi, Efik, Ijaw, Ogoni, Ogoja.
Grassland/Savannah Peoples: * Middle Belt: Tiv, Nupe, Igbira, Jukun, Idoma, Igala, and hill-dwelling groups of the Jos Plateau. * Far North: Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri.
Ethnic Origins: Many groups claim origins from Egypt or Sudan, showing strong ancient ties to North Africa.
Ethnic Patterns/Clusters (Select Examples): * Hausa-Fulani Cluster: Hausa units (Kanawa, Katsenawa, etc.), Fulani, Jaba, Dakarkari, Zabarma. * Yoruba Cluster: Egba-Awori, Ekiti, Ijebu, Ijesha, Oyo, Ife. * Igbo Cluster: Aro, Ezza, Ika, Ikwerri, Ngwa, Onitsha-Awka. * Kanuri Cluster: Kanuri, Tera, Bolewa, Ngizim.

The Kanem-Borno Empire

Origin: Founded by Mai Umme Jilmi ( $1088$ – $1097$ ) with the capital at Njimi in modern Chad.
Expansion: Mai Dunama I ( $1097$ – $1150$ ) and Mai Dunama II ( $1221$ – $1259$ ) expanded the territory. Mai Dunama II established a decentralized government.
Administrative Structure: * The Mai: King and supreme authority. * State Council: $12$ advisors from the royal family. * Four Provinces: North (headed by Yerima), South (headed by Kaigama - Commander-in-Chief), East (headed by Mestrema - royal warden), and West (headed by Galadima). * Military: Under Idris Alooma, Turkish military instructors and firearms were introduced. Provincial commanders were called Kacella.
Judiciary: * Mainin Kanemdi: Chief Justice, ranking second in the empire. * Talba: Keeper of the high court records. * Appeals: Local courts existed in towns; appeals went to the High Court of Justice.
Decline: Conquered by Fulani warriors in $1808$ under the influence of Usman Dan Fodio’s jihad.

The Hausa States

Origin Legend: Bayajidda of Baghdad migrated to Kanem-Borno, then to Daura. He killed the sacred snake, Sarki, which controlled access to water. In return, he married the Queen of Daura.
Hausa Bokwoi (Original Seven): Founded by Bawo (Bayajidda's son) and his descendants. * Biram and Daura: Early settlements. * Kano and Rano: Centers of the indigo industry. * Katsina and Daura: Controlled trade and commerce. * Zaria: Known as Sarkin Bayi (slave acquisition). * Gobir: Sarkin Yaki (war leader), protected the northern boundary from Tuaregs.
Banza Bokwoi (The "Illegitimate" Seven): Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin, and Kwararafa (Jukun).
Administrative Officials: * Sarki: The King. * Galadima: Heir or eunuch in charge of the capital in the king’s absence. * Waziri/Madawaki: Commander-in-Chief, second to the Sarki. * Magaji: State treasurer. * Yari: In charge of prisons. * Sarkin Dogari: King’s bodyguard.
Taxation System: * Zakat: Income tax for charities. * Jangai: Livestock tax. * Kharaj: Land tax. * Jizah/Gandu: Capitation/poll tax on conquered states, often paid in slaves. * Gaisua: Tribute from vassal rulers.
The Jihad of 1817: Led by Usman Dan Fodio to reform Islam from syncretism to orthodoxy and take political/economic control of trade routes from Hausa rulers.

Other Key Kingdoms and Ethnic Groups

Nupe Kingdom: Founded by Tsoede (Edegi) in the $15th$ century. He brought magical regalia from the Igala court at Idah. Succession was managed by a council of elders headed by the Ndeji.
Igala Kingdom: Led by the Attah ("Father"). The Attah was the head of the royal clan, territorial administrator, and custodian of the land shrine, Erane. The high court was known as Ogbede.
Jukun Kingdom: Descendants of the Kororofawa. Practiced theocracy centered on the divine kingship of the Aku of Wukari.
Tiv Nation: Descended from the patriarch "Tiv" and his wife Ayaaya. Sons were Ipusu and Ichongo. Governed by a Council of Chiefs; headquartered in Gboko. Known for the Mbakwav (age-grade structure).
Yoruba Origins: Two traditions: * Autochthony: Oduduwa was sent by Olodumare to create earth at Ile-Ife with a snail shell and a five-toed hen. * Migration: Oduduwa led followers from Mecca (son of King Lamurudu) after a religious clash.
Igbo Society: No centralized government; used segmentary political units (extended families/wards). Nri town was the ancestral center. Judicial system was hierarchy-based: "court of the father" followed by the "council of elders."
Benin Kingdom: Built around the Oba, starting with Oba Eweka I. Had a complex elite structure including the Uzama (seven cabinet members) and the Enigie (dukes/village heads). Renowned for advanced art and guilds of artisans.
Urhobo Nation: Comprises $24$ kingdoms tracing origins to Benin. Governed via gerontocracy (elders) and the Okpako Orere (eldest person in the community).
Ijaw (Ijo): Non-centralized, fragmented society divided into clans (Ibes). Famous for exotic clothing and status-signifying wrappers and coral beads.
Itsekiri Kingdom: Capital at Warri; settlement started by Ginuwa (son of a Benin leader). Social structure governed by the Olu and the Ife oracle.