OCR A LEVEL HISTORY: FROM PITT TO PEEL 1783-1846

Analytical Writing and Question Focus

Emphasis on analytical writing and linking material to the question.
Importance of the opening sentence in each paragraph to introduce an idea linked to the question.
The idea is discussed throughout the paragraph before making a judgement about the issue.
Skills to address the question's demands and avoid writing all you know about the topic.

Timeline of Key Events

1788 August: Britain, Prussia, and the United Provinces form the Triple Alliance.
1793 February: Britain declares war on France.
1799 November: Napoleon becomes First Consul.
1802 March: Peace of Amiens.
1805 October: Battle of Trafalgar.
1808 August: Peninsular War begins with British troops landing in Portugal.
1812 June: Napoleon invades Russia; War with USA.
1814 April: Napoleon abdicates; Congress of Vienna.
1815 April: Napoleon returns to France; June: Battle of Waterloo; September: Treaty of Vienna; Holy Alliance.
1820 July: Congress of Troppau.
1822 August: Castlereagh commits suicide; October: Congress of Verona.
1823 April: France restores Ferdinand VII of Spain.
1824 March: British navy and troops sent to Portugal.
1827 July: Treaty of London with Russia; August: Canning dies; October: Battle of Navarino.

Overview of British Foreign Policy (1783-1827)

Focus on British foreign policy under Pitt, Castlereagh, Liverpool, and Canning.
1783: Britain faced diplomatic fallout from the American War of Independence (1776-83).
- France fought against Britain.
- Other countries opposed Britain's trade interference.
Pitt aimed to end hostilities with France, but concerns remained about French ambitions in the Netherlands.
Russia emerged as another concern for Britain.
1793: Start of a long war period due to the French Revolution, lasting until 1815 with short breaks.
- Britain used naval power and wealth to exert influence, leading coalitions against France.
- Control of the seas maintained independence from Napoleon.
- The Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal weakened France.
- Britain played a key role in Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (1815).
Castlereagh negotiated alliances against France after 1812 and organized the European peace conference in Vienna (1814).
- British interests were served through colonial gains and territorial adjustments in Europe, establishing a balance of power.
Ongoing conferences were held to maintain peace.
Castlereagh opposed the Holy Alliance's attempts to suppress political change and nationalism.
Canning opposed the Congress system, supporting new republics in South America and defending Portugal against intervention.
Britain, with Russia and France, destroyed the Turkish fleet in 1827, leading to Greece's independence in 1830.

Key Themes in British Foreign Policy

Restricting French power.
Avoiding French control of the Low Countries.
Maintaining a balance of power in Europe.
Using naval and economic power for influence.
Expanding British trade and colonies.
Forming European alliances when necessary, avoiding them when not.
These themes guided British policy from the 16th to the 20th century.

Britain's Diplomatic Isolation (1783-1789)

1783: Britain's foreign affairs standing was low due to defeat in the American colonies war.
- France gained prestige.
- European countries opposed Britain's policy of searching neutral ships.
- Russia, Denmark, and Sweden formed the League of Armed Neutrality against Britain in 1780, joined later by Prussia, Austria, the Netherlands, Naples, and the Ottoman Empire.
This situation posed a threat to Britain due to hostile powers in key areas like the Baltic, Mediterranean, and English Channel.
France and Spain had a 'family compact' and France was friendly with Austria and Russia, leaving Prussia as Britain's only possible ally.

The United Provinces (Netherlands)

The United Provinces (modern Netherlands) was an alliance of seven provinces ruled by a stadtholder from the House of Orange.
Britain had strong links since William of Orange became King William III in 1688.
The merchant class in the United Provinces resented British trade competition and restrictions.
A radical 'Patriot' party, pro-French and anti-English, opposed the stadtholder, threatening French control of the Netherlands.
French control would:
- Dominate Belgium (then ruled by Austria).
- Prevent Britain from using the Scheldt River for trade.
- Threaten British security by allowing a major power to occupy the coastline opposite Britain.

Pitt's Desire for Peace

Pitt wanted to avoid war with France due to the huge debt from previous wars.
He aimed to increase trading links with Europe, signing a trade treaty with the United Provinces in 1785 and the Eden Treaty with France in 1786.
Pitt believed it was 'childish' to assume France would always be an enemy.
However, he couldn't ignore threats to the Netherlands from France.

The Triple Alliance (1788)

Wilhelmina, wife of stadtholder Willem V, sought Prussian support to suppress the Patriot party.
Clashes occurred between supporters and Patriots, who sought French help.
Pitt funded Orange supporters, fearing a democratic Dutch republic allied with France.
August 1788: A defensive alliance was signed with Prussia and the United Provinces, driven by Prussia's minister Hertzberg's ambition.
Pitt mobilized the fleet against a potential French invasion and supplied Orange forces.
20,000 Prussian troops entered the United Provinces in September 1787, defeating the Patriots.
The Triple Alliance ended Britain's diplomatic isolation and prevented French expansion into the Low Countries.

Other Diplomatic Matters

Britain feared a Quadruple Alliance between Russia, France, Austria, and Spain, proposed by Catherine II of Russia, but it didn't materialize due to tensions between Austria and Russia.
The Nootka Sound dispute in 1789 showed France's reluctance to support Spain in a war, leading to a peaceful settlement in 1790.

The Situation in 1790

Pitt could be pleased with his policies:
- France was unable to dominate the United Provinces.
- The trade treaty with France in 1786 brought economic benefits to Britain.
- The Triple Alliance brought Britain out of isolation.
- The death of anti-British French foreign minister Vergennes in 1787 improved Anglo-French relations.
- Pitt made it clear Britain wouldn't be drawn into eastern European quarrels.
- Building up the navy gave Britain military weight for foreign policy.
- The new Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold II, offered Britain friendship.
On the other hand:
- Pitt didn't support Prussia's quest for more land in Poland.
- Russian expansion remained a threat to India.
- The Patriots in the Netherlands remained a threat.
- The French still had ambitions in the Netherlands.
The French Revolution in 1789 brought fresh uncertainty and ongoing problems for Britain.

Impact of French Revolution on British Foreign Policy (1789-1793)

Britain went to war with revolutionary France in February 1793, starting a long war until 1815.
France had supported revolutionaries before:
- Supporting rebels in American colonies.
- Hoping to control the Low Countries.
Even without the French Revolution, peace between Britain and France might not have lasted.

Initial British Reaction

Initially, Pitt didn't see the events of 1789 as threatening.
King Louis XVI was seen as a poor ruler.
If the Revolution resulted in a constitutional monarchy, it would align with Britain's system since 1688.
A regime influenced by the middle class might encourage more trading agreements.
Internal unrest in France would weaken it, allowing Britain to focus on Russia.

Constitutional Monarchy

Constitutional monarchy involves shared power with an elected parliament.
Established in Britain by the Glorious Revolution in 1688, replacing James II with William and Mary.

Lord Grenville

William (Lord Grenville, 1759–1834) was Pitt's cousin and foreign secretary from 1791 to 1801.
Initially against war, he advocated confronting France on land from 1793.
He served briefly as prime minister (1806-07).

Pitt's Stance

When the Bastille was stormed, Pitt felt pity rather than concern.
He aimed to maintain peace, desiring to preserve neutrality and avoid intervention.
In November 1792, Lord Grenville argued that Pitt had kept Britain from sharing in the evils surrounding them by staying aloof.

Increasing Radicalism in France

The Revolution became increasingly radical.
The French king lost control in 1789.
Exiled French aristocrats called for international action to save the monarchy.
Internal violence grew.
In April 1792, France went to war against Prussia and Austria.
In September 1792, the monarchy was replaced by a republic.
Extreme leaders called for spreading the Revolution throughout Europe.
Despite links to Prussia and the United Provinces, Britain remained 'aloof'.

The Ottoman Turks

From Constantinople, the sultans ruled a large but declining empire.
Turkish weaknesses encouraged Russian expansion to gain warm water ports.
This brought Russia into conflict with Britain and Austria, fearing Russian expansion.

Concerns about Russia

Russia had taken the lead in a coalition against Britain in 1780.
Catherine the Great and Potemkin pursued expansion to the south.
A war against the Ottoman Turks resulted in the capture of Ochakov in 1788, controlling the mouths of the Dnieper and Bug rivers.
In 1789, Russian troops took most of the lower Danube with the capture of Ismail.
Strategic concerns worried both Britain and Prussia.
Russian forces threatened the eastern Mediterranean and overland routes to British India.
Russian expansion to the Black Sea would facilitate trade with France.
A major concern for Britain was the construction of ports at Kherson and Akhtiar on the Crimean peninsula.
Prussia was concerned about Russian control over Poland and backed Britain.
Pitt threatened Russia with war, moving ships to the Baltic unless Ochakov was restored to Turkey.
Opposition by Fox, a lukewarm House of Commons, and concerns from Grenville forced Pitt to climb down.
Russian concerns seemed to take precedence over France.

Other Reasons for Non-Intervention

Pitt was concerned about the costs of war and a repeat of the American War.
A costly war would undo financial achievements, such as debt reduction through the sinking fund, improved trade, and reduced government costs.
There was concern about internal security, with British radical support for French Revolution ideas growing.
War would mean increased taxation, less trade, economic hardship, and discontent.
France had not broken any treaty obligations.
French exiles made extreme threats, and foreign armies restoring the King would create instability.
When France declared war on Austria and Prussia in April 1792, British intervention seemed unnecessary.
If Austria and Prussia won, it would upset the balance of power; since no direct British interest was involved, neutrality seemed wise.
The revolution naturally distracted France from foreign affairs, benefitting Britain.
Britain was reluctant to associate with Prussian ambitions.

Shift Towards Involvement

France's invasion and occupation of Belgium, together with its November 1792 declaration of support for any revolutionary activity throughout Europe, made Britain's involvement in the war more likely.
The execution of Louis XVI was the trigger. Two days later, Pitt ordered the expulsion of the French ambassador.
The French ordered an embargo on Dutch and British shipping and an invasion of Holland.
The great fear had been that the French would control the Scheldt, the main river used by British shipping. Now that this was inevitable, Britain declared war on 11 February 1793.

Criticisms of Pitt's Policy

Pitt's foreign policy has been criticized for not acting sooner against the dangers of the Revolution.
Edmund Burke and some of Pitt's cabinet called for stronger action.
Historian Robert Harvey suggests that British intervention might have led to Austrian and Prussian victories in 1792, preventing a long war.
However, Britain responded to the invasion of the United Provinces and the execution of Louis XVI.
Pitt did not anticipate that Britain would play a key part in a long war.

Horatio, Lord Nelson

Nelson (1758-1805) rose quickly in the navy, known for daring and independence; lost an arm and an eye in battle.
Victories at Aboukir Bay (1798), Copenhagen, and Trafalgar (1805) made him a famous naval leader.
He was shot during the Battle of Trafalgar and died of his wounds.

Summary of the War, 1793-1807

Britain joined a coalition of Holland, Spain, Austria, Prussia and the northern Italian state of Piedmont in 1793; the coalition lacked strategy.
A British force was defeated at Hondscoote in 1793 and forced to abandon its siege of Dunkirk.
A British occupation of Toulon was ended by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Much of Britain's contribution was fought overseas, strengthening the empire.
Pitt gave large subsidies to allies, who were unable to defeat the French.
By 1796, only Austria was left as a major ally but its forces were defeated in Italy by Bonaparte and the Austrians signed a peace treaty in 1797 giving France most of Italy.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon (1769-1821) was educated at military school in France.
Victorious against Austria in Italy in 1796-97.
Led an expedition to Egypt in 1798 but was defeated by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile.
Led a coup in 1799, becoming First Consul.
Defeated Austria again in 1800 and signed a peace treaty with Britain in 1802.
Ruled as Consul for Life from 1802, introducing reforms in France, including a new law code and education system.
Made himself Emperor in 1804.

Pitt as a War Minister (1793–1806)

Britain fought revolutionary France and then Napoleon Bonaparte.
There was a brief peace from 1802-03 before war resumed.
A war against radical revolution turned into a war against French domination of Europe.
The limited wars of the 18th century gave way to a new type of 'total war'.

Peace Negotiations

By 1797, Pitt attempted peace negotiations due to financial strain and coalition failures.
Austria had been defeated, and the Netherlands and Spain had changed sides.
There was also a danger that France might invade Ireland.

Naval Successes

At sea, the British were more successful, imposing a blockade on France and defeating the forces of France's ally Spain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797.
British naval supremacy kept Britain itself secure from invasion, and despite French support, a rebellion in Ireland was quickly overcome in 1798.
A French invasion of Egypt was countered by the destruction of its fleet at Aboukir Bay on the Nile in 1798 by a British naval force under Nelson.
This encouraged another European coalition in which Austria and Russia joined Britain. Initial successes were overturned by French victories in the German states and Napoleon's defeat of the Austrians at Marengo, which led to the French reconquest of Italy.

Pitt Leaves and Returns to Office

Pitt left office in 1801 and his successor, Henry Addington, signed a peace treaty (the Treaty of Amiens) in 1802, but war with Napoleonic France began again in 1803.
Pitt returned as prime minister in 1804 and in the following year Britain's most famous naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar confirmed British naval supremacy, ensuring that a French invasion would be impossible.
However, even before that, Napoleon had decided on a land campaign that defeated all three of Britain's allies in the war of the Third Coalition. Russia, Austria and Prussia all signed peace treaties and by 1807 Britain was again isolated.

Britain's Strengths and Limitations in the War

Pitt made intelligent use of Britain's resources and financial strength.
While Britain's navy had successes and Britain was safe from invasion, the war was no closer to being won in 1806 when Pitt died than in 1793 when he first began to fight France.

Naval Power

Britain had developed the world's most powerful navy. Pitt had helped to extend this before 1793 by building large warships, even at a time of cost-cutting in other areas. In 1793 Britain had 661 naval vessels compared to France's 291.
Pitt used his forces well. The navy was technically superior to that of France and was well-led. It maintained a demanding blockade of France, ensured that Britain kept links with its overseas possessions and kept control of the Channel, ensuring security from invasion.

Naval Building and Recruitment

Pitt was able to sustain naval building and recruitment and in 1795 passed the Quota Acts requiring English counties and London to provide recruits. Impressment of men, especially merchant seamen, was also increased.
Considerable investment was made in dockyards, especially Portsmouth after 1795. The Quota Acts produced many criminal and unfit recruits and there were major mutinies in 1797, but in general, government spending and recruitment maintained naval superiority.

Naval Victories

Nelson was not the only talented British admiral who won significant victories. In 1794 Admiral Lord Howe destroyed 22 French ships at the Battle of the Glorious First of June, weakening the French navy early in the war.
In 1797 there was a major victory. A plan by France for a joint Spanish-French naval expedition to Ireland was ended by the destruction of the Spanish vessels by Admiral Jervis at Cape St Vincent on 14 February. The rest of the Spanish fleet was blockaded in Cadiz and neutralised.
The Battle of Camperdown in October 1797 similarly damaged France's other naval ally, the Dutch (now the Batavian Republic).
The destruction of the French fleet by Nelson in Egypt in 1798 prevented France from interfering with the British colonial war in India or establishing power in the eastern Mediterranean to cut off British routes to Asia.
The destruction of the Danish fleet in Copenhagen in 1801, in which Nelson ignored orders and launched a powerful attack, prevented France overcoming its own naval weakness by using ships from another nation.
However, the overwhelming success of British naval power and vindication of Pitt's policy was at Trafalgar in October 1805.

Deployment of Force in Europe

Rather than use Britain's small armed forces in Europe, Pitt's policy was to add to Britain's overseas possessions and use its navy profitably: enemy ships captured led to considerable financial gains. The seizure of valuable French colonies in the West Indies – Tobago, Santa Lucia, Martinique and Trinidad - in 1795-97 meant that naval power was used to increase British wealth and power, which was shared between the Government and the crews. Economic warfare overrode any ethical considerations and protesting foreign countries were ignored. An attempt to revive the League of Armed Neutrality of 1780 was met by force and the Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored off Copenhagen was attacked and severely damaged in April 1801. Britain was not engaged in total war in the modern sense, nor was it fighting for survival as was revolutionary France. However, Pitt ensured that allies were supported.

Economic and Financial Strength

Pitt also made considerable use of Britain's economic and financial strength. Britain subsidised Austria and Prussia by £9 million in the period 1793-1802. The £4.6 million lent to Austria in 1795 produced little benefit as Austria was defeated by French forces in Italy under Napoleon Bonaparte and signed a peace treaty in 1797. Much larger sums were paid to Britain's allies by Pitt's successors after 1806. Despite this expense the costs of raising and maintaining large armies to fight in Europe would have been considerably higher. The naval and colonial war was effective and profitable.

Trafalgar

The battle of Trafalgar was fought off the coast of south-west Spain on 21 October 1805.
The French had succeeded in joining the fleet of their ally Spain. They had numerical superiority of 33 warships to Britain's 22. From the Caribbean they were sailing to establish control of the English Channel to make a French invasion possible.
Nelson broke the enemy line with a daring attack; heavy British firepower and determined assault destroyed 22 of the enemy ships with no English ships lost. Nelson was killed by a sniper, but British naval supremacy meant that Britain was able to maintain resistance and pursue an effective policy of blockading France while keeping British forces in Spain supplied.

Pitt's Wealth and Financial System

Pitt's earlier financial successes allowed him to subsidise allies and avoid committing the small British army in Europe.
He was fortunate in that a very sound system had been established in the 1690s with a national bank and a national debt, which encouraged widespread lending to the state with the confidence that obligations would be honoured.
Pitt himself had done much to boost this confidence by his sound financial policies before 1793. He was able to tap into Britain's wealth derived from its colonies and manufacturing exports in the early stages of the industrial revolution. His financial skill in raising taxes to meet very large wartime expenditures substantially out of income rather than by letting the debt get out of hand was of major importance.

Paper money

Pitt had to face the introduction of more paper money and an ending of the free exchange of paper money for gold at the Bank of England in 1797 when no less than one-third of government income was already committed to paying off interest on the national debt. In addition he was forced to treble indirect taxation.
His greatest contribution to meeting the challenge of war expenditure and ensuring that war was financed mostly by taxation was the introduction of income tax in 1798, passed in 1799 and modified by Addington in 1803. It meant that the burden was shared more equally than if imposed on consumers by indirect taxes. It was levied on all incomes over £200 at a rate of 10 per cent. There were lower rates on incomes from £60 to £200. Expected to raise £10 million it actually brought in £6 million. In its revised form, with taxation debited at source, it brought in an additional 50 per cent.

Pitt's War leadership

Pitt's war speeches were not made to a mass audience and were not intended to appeal to the public at large. They are solidly argued and stated a clear position, but contemporaries thought them lacking in fire and inspiration. He argued that there would be no real security in any peace made with a French republic. He also made it clear that war meant sacrifice. As he told the House of Commons during the first war budget speech made in March 1793:

This is a war in which, not merely adopting empty professions, but speaking the language of our hearts and fulfilling the impressions of our duty, we are ready to sacrifice our lives and fortunes for the safety of the country, the security of Europe, and in the cause of justice, humanity, and religion.

Limitations of Pitt as a war leader

Despite the determination shown in this speech, Pitt felt obliged to consider negotiating with France in 1796 and 1799 and he supported the ending of the war in 1802 even if some territorial gains were lost. However, even when in poor health during his 1804-06 ministry, he did sustain a belief that the war was for strong principles and did maintain support for it.
The problem was that the policies pursued – the naval war, the so-called 'blue water strategy' of using naval power and subsidising allies to fight on land - had not brought victory and, in 1806, did not look likely to do so.

Military Tactics

The French, by mobilising the whole nation and using effective military tactics, led by military commanders of great ability, had defeated the armies of the old regime and established control of the Netherlands and Italy.
The British had shown a great deal of daring in naval warfare but the naval victories had not brought France anywhere near defeat. Without a major land campaign which could destroy the French armies, the war would last indefinitely. The French achieved their greatest victories in 1805-07 after the Battle of Trafalgar and Britain was powerless to stop them. Subsidies given to continental allies were of little use unless they helped commanders defeat Napoleon which, during Pitt's lifetime, they were unable to do.

Aims of British Foreign Policy

Prevent one power from dominating Europe.
Stop the coastline opposite Britain being controlled by a single power and protect the independence of the Low Countries.
Ensure that Britain had effective alliances.
Ensure that Russia was not too powerful and did not threaten British interests in India.
Protect and promote trade for its growing manufacturers.

Pitt's Efforts

By 1807, for all Pitt's efforts, these had not really been achieved.
The Low Countries were under French domination. France ruled Belgium directly and Napoleon had installed his own brother, Louis, as king in Holland.
Three coalitions had broken down since 1793.
Russia made an agreement in 1807 to dominate the world with France - Russia's share would include India.
Trade was interrupted by war and further restricted by Napoleon's Continental system, begun in 1806, which forbade European ports from accepting British goods.
There was no prospect of British land forces being able to force France into any decisive engagement.

Criticisms of Pitt's War Leadership

The historian Eric Evans (Pitt the Younger, 1999) puts forward four major criticisms of Pitt's war leadership:

He entered the war in 1793 with little idea of its possible nature and scope.
He failed to grasp that Austria and Prussia would be poor allies because they had little interest in northeast Europe and were more concerned with affairs in Poland.
He wrongly thought that the war would be short and his financial arrangements were based on that. It took some time for him to adjust to wartime finance.
Pitt was torn between Grenville's advice that the war should focus on France and Dundas' advice that Britain should fight in the colonies and in India to secure trade. No clear overall strategy emerged.

Britain's Role in the Defeat of Napoleon

Britain was the most determined and consistent enemy of Napoleon, and played a major role in his downfall. From 1803, when the brief peace signed at Amiens collapsed, to 1814, Britain opposed him in the following ways. It:
negotiated and financed coalitions of other European powers
maintained a naval blockade against France, preventing other nations from trading with it and seizing the ships of France and its allies
fought a naval war against the navies of France and its allies
maintained a long war in Spain, which France had taken over, which culminated in the invasion of southern France.
After defeat, in firstly Russia and then Spain, France was invaded and Napoleon abdicated in April 1814. He was exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba but he escaped and in 1815 returned to France where he once more took control. This 'Hundred Days' of power was ended by a defeat inflicted by British and Prussian forces at Waterloo.

British Strategy After Pitt's Death

Pitt's policy of encouraging coalitions was continued by his successors. The Third Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain seemed unbeatable, but Napoleon won a stunning series of victories from 1805 to 1807, abandoning plans to invade Britain and turning on his continental enemies. The war ended with an alliance between Russia and France, which was dangerous for Britain. However, the power of the royal navy prevented a French invasion and, together with Britain's commercial wealth and sophisticated financial system, allowed it to continue to subsidise Napoleon's enemies. Britain supported Austria, who went to war against France in 1809, but that ended in yet another French victory. When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Britain again negotiated alliances and subsidised a fresh anti-Napoleonic coalition. Concerted action by British, Russian, Austrian and Prussian forces eventually proved too much for France and led to its defeat in 1814.

Naval Blockade

Central to British strategy was the naval blockade. Pitt's policy was continued. Britain's Orders in Council gave British naval vessels the right to stop, search and seize cargo from ships carrying goods between enemy ports, including neutral vessels. Ports which excluded British goods were subject to British naval blockades, which prevented ships entering or leaving.

Continental system

The Continental system, banning France and the countries it dominated from accepting British goods, was introduced by Napoleon to counter it. This was of considerable importance in the outcome of the war. To block European trade with Britain was an ambitious scheme of economic warfare. More than any other power, Britain depended on trade and industry. Blocking that trade would cause internal unrest in Britain and deprive its leaders of the money to finance coalitions. However, to be effective, France had to ensure the co-operation of all European countries.
This required a French invasion of Portugal and Spain, which Napoleon had never fully controlled. Britain took the opportunity to send troops to Europe. Meanwhile, a breakdown of relations between France and Russia contributed to Napoleon's fatal decision to invade Russia in 1812 without what he called his 'Spanish ulcer' healed.

Naval Power

The key to continued opposition by Britain however was naval power. In 1805 Britain had destroyed much of the French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar and ensured that it had command of the seas. Its ships severely restricted French trade, undertook expeditions to French colonies and enabled the British to fight a long war in Spain and Portugal by bringing in fresh troops and supplies. Control of the Channel made any French invasion impossible.
Any threat to British naval power was ruthlessly dealt with. In 1807 the Danish fleet was sunk at Copenhagen when Britain thought that there was a possibility that Denmark would declare war on Britain. Ongoing disputes about the seizure of US ships and the searching of those ships for deserters by Britain, contributed to a war between Britain and the USA in 1812, which was fought at sea and also in Canada and the USA.

Napoleonic Wars

1799 Napoleon takes power in France
1804 Napoleon becomes emperor
1805-07 The War of the Third Coalition; Napoleon defeats Austria, Prussia and Russia
1805 Battle of Trafalgar
1806-07 Continental system starts (lasts until 1814); Napoleon's Berlin and Milan decrees shut European ports to British ships
1807 Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I of Russia
1807 British Orders in Council respond to the Continental system
1808-14 Peninsular War; France invades Spain and Portugal and is resisted by Britain
1809 Napoleon defeats Austria at Wagram
1812 Napoleon invades Russia and is forced to retreat with heavy losses
1813-14 Heavy fighting between France and an alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria, subsidised by Britain; France is invaded
1814 Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba
1815 Napoleon returns; defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St Helena

Britain Wins the Peninsular War

Though Britain did land forces in a brief and unsuccessful campaign at Walcheren in the Netherlands to support Austria's campaign against France in 1809, the bulk of Britain's land warfare was in Portugal and Spain.
The so-called Peninsular War began when Portugal, one of Britain's oldest allies, refused to accept Napoleon's enforcement of the Continental system. Napoleon also encountered significant resistance in Spain after imposing his elder brother Joseph as king. Spanish forces defeated the French at Baylen in July 1808, the first significant defeat of a Napoleonic army, following which they took control of most of the country. Although Joseph remained nominal ruler over Spain until 1813, he exercised very little authority there.

Britain Sending Forces to Portugal

In 1808, Britain sent forces to Portugal under the command first of Sir Arthur Wellesley and then Sir Harry Burrard, followed by Sir Hew Dalrymple to drive out the French. Portugal's long coastline helped the navy support the British expeditionary forces. By contrast, France relied on very long lines of communication.
The French forces were defeated, but by the terms of the controversial Convention of Cintra,