G.P.: Global politics myths and mysteries Chapter 2: Politics

2.1 Introduction

Politics relies on myths or narratives that help explain societal structures and functions. Notable examples include:

  • Thomas Hobbes (1651) posited the need to submit to state power to avoid chaos and conflict, expressed as a war of all against all.

  • Donald Trump's Inauguration Speech (2017): He invoked the idea of 'American carnage' to justify intervention.

  • Cultures of myth persist, as evidenced by narratives surrounding the end of the Cold War, famously termed the 'End of History' by Francis Fukuyama (1989), which suggest that ideological conflict has been resolved in favour of liberal capitalism.

    • This narrative implied that capitalism was not only the best but also the only viable system; however, historical events have demonstrated its limitations.

  • Racial Justice Movements: Highlight the myth of race constructed through narratives justifying colonialism and sustaining patriarchy.

The myths surrounding politics reflect a natural order assumption, which Plato referred to as a "noble lie" to maintain societal structure. However, politics also embodies creativity and collective action that challenge these myths.

This chapter delineates the meaning of politics, particularly its manifestation at the global level, emphasising everyday political engagement as a necessity, not merely a function of elites.

2.2 Politics and the Everyday

Politics permeates daily interactions and relationships, extending beyond traditional political activities (such as voting) to encompass all social contexts in which power dynamics exist.

2.2.1 Coercion and Authority

  • Coercion: The act of compelling someone to act against their will, experienced through various means such as legal or familial pressures, societal expectations, and even physical threats.

    • Examples include:

      • Denial of entry to establishments (e.g., bars, clubs)

      • Familial obligations

      • Police encounters

    • Coercion can be subtle (e.g., street harassment) as well as overt (e.g., violence).

  • Authority: legitimises coercion, dictating norms and rules. It may stem from various sources, such as:

    • Expertise (teachers)

    • Legal frameworks (law enforcement)

    • Social norms (friendship dynamics)

Authority must possess legitimacy. Questions arise when authority fails to justify the coercive power it wields.
- For example, if a teacher acts exploitatively, their authority diminishes to tyranny.
- Legitimacy: Transformative in ensuring authority is not merely about power but acknowledges the common good and shared consequences.

Politics emerges as collective efforts to regulate social interaction, emphasising collaboration over coercion.

2.2.2 Legitimate Authority and the Common Good

Asserting authority is often met with scrutiny:

  • Examples include challenging university curriculum biases or police discrimination actions.

  • Politics encompasses efforts not only to challenge but also to redistribute power dynamics, aiming for common societal welfare.

Legitimacy requires that individuals subjected to authority receive justifications for their subjugation, highlighting the role of reasoned social interaction over brute force.
    -Teachers validate their authority through commitment to student success; police officers justify their roles through adherence to public safety.
- Bernard Crick (2005): Politics regulates social interaction via standard rules grounded in the collective good.

2.2.3 Everyday Experiences of Politics

Cognisance of politics affects daily experiences:

  • Historical actions, such as tuition fee hikes or healthcare reforms, directly affect individuals’ lives and can alter future social relationships.

  • Personal impacts extend to civil liberties experienced during crises (e.g., Covid-19 pandemic restrictions).

  • Relationship to the nation-state defines the scope of political life, wherein understanding local laws, community interactions, and voting behaviour is pivotal.

2.2.4 Global Politics or International Relations

The terms "International Relations" and "Global Politics" are often misunderstood:

  • In the UK, International Relations developed as a distinct discipline, whereas in North America, it is framed within broader Political Science.

  • Conventional notions separate domestic from international politics. Critics argue that such disjunctions mask the interconnectedness of political dynamics that transcend borders.

  • Cynthia Enloe (2014): Calls for recognition of overlooked dimensions of politics, particularly women’s roles, emphasizing the need for inclusive analyses of global politics.

2.3 Theorising Politics

Understanding politics theoretically helps in navigating the complexities of political experiences. Two influential theorists provide frameworks:

2.3.1 Lasswell's Theory of Politics

  • Harold Lasswell (1936) defined politics fundamentally as the distribution of resources: "who gets what, when, and how."

    • Clarification of social goods,whether material, status-related, or intangible, shapes our understanding of power dynamics. For instance, deference and income are often dependent on class or skill.

  • Lasswell’s analysis isolates political influence from personal behaviours, observing broader structures from a societal view, allowing for examination of systemic inequalities prevalent in resource distribution.

2.3.2 Plato's Theory of Politics

  • Plato’s views on politics were normative, focusing on governance aimed at the common good through social harmony and fulfilling societal roles.

    • He believed ideal governance required a knowledgeable ruling class (guardians) supported by those capable of practical governance (auxiliaries).

    • Critics argue that such a hierarchy limits freedom and overlooks individual potential. Arendt aligns with the political necessity for collective consumer freedom and rebellion against oppressive forces.

2.3.3 Theory and Political Critique

Linking normative with explanatory frameworks inspires deeper critical inquiry into existing political frameworks, revealing injustices and societal myths:

  • Karl Marx (2000) identifies labour exploitation under capitalism as unjust, advocating for change rooted in structural critique rather than divine or natural premises.

Theorising politics enables an understanding of cycles of power and the legitimisation processes that impact social relationships.

2.3.4 Thinking Theoretically about Politics

Dissecting and integrating personal experiences with theoretical constructs fosters a comprehensive understanding of political thought. Reflective theorising entails questioning underlying beliefs, interpretations, and the legitimacy of existing societies based on historical and enduring political narratives.

2.4 Politics and the Public

The public sphere is crucial to understanding politics, as it shapes the shared complexities that evolve social relationships.

2.4.1 What is the Public?

  • Standard definition: The public encompasses the communal aspects of society, including laws, knowledge, and social institutions.

    • Public interests and dynamics allow broader engagement, shaping political discourse and community identity.

    • Social relationships yield political outcomes, as interactions in the domestic sphere extend into civic responsibility, demonstrating the broader ramifications of public engagement.

2.4.2 Politics and the Political

Sheldon Wolin (1994) differentiates between politics (existing order) and the political (collective action challenging that order), urging recognition of both dimensions to foster social change:

  • Historical movements, such as the Arab Spring, exemplify political action that disrupts established norms to pursue social reform and justice.

2.5 Becoming Political

Hannah Arendt’s Perspective (2005) emphasises individual plurality fueling political engagement,

  • Arguing that each person's unique perspectives drive collective political action.

  • Political legitimacy must strive for equality and freedom rather than domination; thus, political authority derives from consensus without coercing dissenting voices.

2.5.1 The Role of Judgment in Politics

Political discourse involves constructing a shared societal sense through collaborative judgments and collective actions.

  • Illustrations of this dynamic include Sojourner Truth’s declaration, which asserts equality by correcting historical exclusions. The Black Lives Matter movement currently echoes this pursuit of recognition, advocating for equal treatment within political structures.

2.6 Conclusion

This chapter elucidates essential political principles and critiques contemporary societal comparisons. Equipped with this knowledge, subsequent chapters will delve deeper into critical concepts such as power, law, and economics, challenging prevailing political wisdom. The objective remains crucial: to cultivate theoretical understanding that enables informed political engagement.

Index of People (in written notes margins):

  • Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679):

    • He was an English philosopher best known for his political theory during the 17th century. In his book Leviathan, he argued that humans are naturally selfish and violent, so they need a strong central authority to maintain peace and order. Hobbes is remembered as one of the founders of modern political philosophy, especially for his idea of the "social contract."

  • Leviathan (1651):

    • It is m,

    • kkoii9uio Thomas Hobbes’s most famous book. In it, he argues that without government, life would be “nasty, brutish, and short,” because people are naturally selfish and in constant conflict. To prevent chaos, Hobbes argued that people must relinquish some of their freedom to a powerful ruler or government (a "Leviathan") in exchange for safety and order.

  • Francis Fukuyama:

    • He is an American political scientist, economist, and author best known for his 1989 essay and 1992 book The End of History and the Last Man. He argued that liberal democracy might represent the final form of human government after the Cold War. His ideas sparked significant debate about the future of politics, globalisation, and the resilience of democracy in a changing world.

  • Carnage:

    • Means large-scale killing or bloodshed, especially during a battle or violent event. It refers to scenes of extreme destruction and loss of life. For example, you might say, “The battlefield was covered in carnage after the war.”

  • Bernard Crick (1929–2008):

    • He was a British political theorist and writer best known for promoting the idea of active citizenship and democratic participation. In his 2005 work and public writings, he emphasised that politics is about peaceful debate and compromise, not conflict or violence. Crick believed that teaching political understanding helps people become responsible, engaged citizens in a democracy.

  • Cynthia Enloe:

    • She is an American feminist scholar known for her work on gender, militarism, and international politics. In her 2014 writings, especially in Bananas, Beaches and Bases (updated edition), she examined how women’s lives are affected by global power structures like the military, diplomacy, and globalisation. Enloe highlights that understanding world politics requires paying attention to women’s experiences and the hidden gendered dynamics behind global events.

  • Harold Lasswell (1902–1978):

    • He was an American political scientist known for his work on political communication and propaganda. In his 1936 book Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, he defined politics as the process of determining how power and resources are distributed in society. Lasswell’s ideas helped shape modern political science, especially the study of media influence and policy-making.

  • Karl Marx (1818–1883):

    • He was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary, best known for developing the theory of communism. Although he lived in the 19th century, his works—like The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital—were republished or discussed in editions of 2000. Marx argued that history is shaped by class struggle between the wealthy (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat), and he believed that a classless, equal society would eventually replace capitalism.

  • Sheldon Wolin (1922–2015):

    • He was an American political theorist known for his critical views on modern democracy and power. In his 1994 work, he explored the idea of “fugitive democracy,” meaning that true democracy is rare and temporary, appearing only when ordinary people actively participate in politics. Wolin warned that large bureaucracies and corporate power can weaken genuine democratic engagement.

  • Hannah Arendt (1906–1975):

    • She was a German-born political theorist known for her ideas about power, freedom, and totalitarianism. Although she died before 2005, her ideas were widely discussed in relation to modern politics that year. Arendt’s perspective emphasised that true politics is about active participation and public debate, where people come together to shape a shared world — not just obey rulers or systems.

  • Sojourner Truth (1797–1883):

    • Was an African American abolitionist and women’s rights activist. Born into slavery, she escaped and became famous for her powerful speeches against racial and gender inequality, including her iconic 1851 speech “Ain’t I a Woman?”. Truth’s activism challenged both slavery and sexism, making her one of the most influential voices for justice in 19th-century America.