Social (Test 4)

Definition: Engaging in helpful actions that benefit other individuals or society as a whole. Prosocial acts can be directed towards individuals or contribute to the greater good.

Watching Effect: Individuals are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior when they feel they are being observed or evaluated. This concept is connected to self-awareness.
Study Reference: A study by Sitao (1975) investigated the impact of perceived observation.
- Participants: Individuals in a room told they were either being watched or not.
- Finding: Donations were seven times higher in the "watched" condition than in the non-watched condition.
- Donation Statistics: In the watched condition, donations were 17 times higher than when they felt anonymous.
Independent Variable: Condition of being observed (watched vs. not watched).

The motivation to engage in prosocial behavior is heightened due to the desire for acceptance and fear of rejection.
If people witness an individual refusing to help, they may perceive them negatively and reject them due to social norms.

Definition: The social norm where individuals feel obligated to return a favor or help someone who has helped them.
Study Reference: A study in 1976 where Christmas cards were sent to individuals by strangers.
- Result: Out of 578 sent cards, 117 recipients sent cards back, demonstrating natural reciprocation.
- Change in Behavior: The study was replicated later with different results due to societal changes, like fewer people sending Christmas cards today.
Reciprocity also affects the likelihood of asking for help; individuals are less likely to seek help if they believe they cannot reciprocate the favor in the future.
- Example: When moving, individuals typically ask friends they have previously helped for assistance.

Difference: Communal relationships focus on mutual care without the expectation of immediate return, while exchange relationships are based on a sense of obligation or reciprocity.
Impact on Help-Seeking: In communal relationships, the expectation of help can differ because motivations are based on concern rather than obligation.

Under-benefit: Feeling deprived compared to others; typically leads to decreased prosocial behavior.
Over-benefit: Feeling that one has more than deserved; may cause anxiety but can lead to increased prosocial behavior.
- Concept of fairness relates to social exchange; those who feel they are getting more than they deserve may feel uncomfortable.

Individuals prefer to maintain their self-esteem. If they outperform others, it may lead to discomfort as they fear rejection from those they surpass.
When comparing oneself to others, feelings of anxiety arise if one’s self-esteem is threatened by outperforming.

Definition: Morality involves rules that encourage actions benefiting others beyond oneself.
Morning Morality Effect: People tend to make more moral decisions after waking due to higher self-control and moral reasoning capacity being replenished with sleep.
Intuition vs. Reason: Moral decisions are often guided by intuition rather than logical reasoning, influenced by personal history and religious beliefs.

A thought experiment that explores the ethical implications of moral decision-making by presenting a scenario in which one must choose between actively causing harm to save more lives or doing nothing and allowing harm to occur.
Factors include personal relationships, proximity to the situation, and emotional involvement.

Disapproval of Harm: Avoiding actions that cause harm to others.
Fairness: Expecting equitable treatment and outcomes.
Respect for Legitimate Authority: Acknowledging and deferring to those in authority under just circumstances.
Loyalty to In-Group: Valuing the well-being of one's own group.
Sanctity/Purity: Valuing actions or beliefs viewed as virtuous or pure.
- Not all individuals hold the same importance for these pillars; political ideologies can affect this valuation. Liberals focus more on disapproval of harm and fairness, while conservatives consider all five pillars significantly.

Research by Marilyn Babson (1973) explored how time pressure affects altruistic behavior in seminary students asked to give impromptu speeches.
- Finding: Regardless of the topic (Good Samaritan or seminary student), time pressure affected helping. Students under pressure (late) were less likely to help someone in need.
- When participants were told they were early, about 66% stopped to help; this dropped to 45% when on time, and only 10% when late.

Definition: Cooperation is the shared effort towards common goals, emphasizing teamwork.
Prisoner’s Dilemma: A classic example that outlines the tension between cooperation and self-interest, illustrating how personal incentives can conflict with collective benefit.
- Outcomes indicated how past behaviors dictate future cooperation: cooperating leads to mutual benefit while competing leads to worse outcomes for everyone involved.

Gossip serves a dual role: spreading information and penalizing non-cooperators by shaming them.

Findings show that in same-sex interactions, men are more likely to cooperate, whereas in mixed-gender situations, women tend to be more cooperative. This suggests that gender dynamics influence cooperation depending on context.

Definition: Trust represents the belief in the reliability and validity of others.
Finding: Optimal trust exists at a moderate level, avoiding extremes of being too trusting or too skeptical.
Shared group memberships enhance trust, facilitating prosocial actions, while interactions with out-group members require more proof of reliability.

Humans are inherently social and cannot thrive alone, enhancing survival through cooperation.
Kin Selection: We are predisposed to help those who are genetically related to us, increasing the likelihood of our genes being passed on through assisted reproductive success of relatives.
Formula for Helping Behavior: R imes B > C where:
- $R$ = relatedness
- $B$ = benefits received from helping
- $C$ = cost of helping
The more closely related two individuals are, the less benefit required to justify the cost of helping.