ELEMENTS and their COMPOUNDS
SOME ELEMENT GROUPS have SPECIAL NAMES
Group 1A = alkali metals
Group 1B = coinage metals
Group 2A = alkaline earth metals
Group 2B = volatile metals
Group 5A = pnictogens
Group 6A = chalcogens
Group 7A = halogens
Group 8A = noble gases, or inert gases, or aerogens
GROUP I–A (ALKALI METALS) sodium is the cation of extracellular fluids, whereas potassium is the cation of intracellular fluids sodium is commonly the cation of choice to optimize pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments sodium salts are used with caution in the treatment of cardiac and renal conditions in which edema is a problem
GROUP I–A (ALKALI METALS) potassium ion has diuretic effect lithium carbonate and lithium citrate have been found valuable in the treatment of hypomanic and manic states; however, patients must be monitored carefully for blood lithium levels
GROUP I–B (COINAGE METALS) small quantities of copper enhance physiological utilization of iron copper occursin hemocyanin radioactive 64Cu isotope is employed in mineral metabolism studies cupric sulfate is the basis for Fehling’s and Benedict’s solutions
GROUP I–B (COINAGE METALS) silver has oligodynamic action silver compounds such as silver nitrate are employed to provide local germicidal action cosmetic problems can result because of discoloration due to photosensitivity of silver ion soluble silver salts are toxic; however, toxicity usually is limited
GROUP I–B (COINAGE METALS) gold compounds are employed in the treatment of lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis aurothioglucose and gold sodium thiomalate requires parenteral administration
GROUP I–B (COINAGE METALS) auranofin is showing some success in oral treatment of rheumatoid arthritis radioactive isotope 198Au is employed therapeutically in the treatment of certain malignancies dimercaprol (BAL) is used as antidote if patients show signs of gold toxicity
GROUP II–A (ALKALINE EARTH METALS) magnesium hydroxide is used as laxative magnesium sulfate is used as laxative, as anticonvulsant, and topically as a bath magnesium stearate is employed as lubricant in the preparation of compressed tablets magnesium is the second most plentiful cation inside the cell and a natural calcium channel blocker
GROUP II–A (ALKALINE EARTH METALS) successful absorption of magnesium from the gastrointestinal tract appears to depend on the nature of the magnesium salt toxic manifestations following magnesium administration are relatively rare; calcium gluconate given intravenously is an effective antidote soluble calcium salts undergo metathesis with soluble borates, carbonates, citrates, oxalates, phosphates, sulfates, and tartrates to yield insoluble calcium compounds
GROUP II–A (ALKALINE EARTH METALS) calcium is the cation of hydroxyapatite, the major constituent (98%) of bones and teeth calcium is frequently the cation of choice to carry therapeutically active anions artificial radioactive 45Ca isotope has been employed in studies involving mineral metabolism barium hydroxide often finds application in analytical and synthetic operations
GROUP II–A (ALKALINE EARTH METALS) barium sulfate finds use as radiopaque barium hydroxide lime is employed as carbon dioxide absorber artificial radioactive isotopes of barium have been employed in pharmacokinetic investigations most readily available antidote for barium ingestion is magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt)
GROUP II–B (VOLATILE METALS) zinc has many therapeutic applications in the treatment of various external surfaces of the body and in wound healing, taste acuity, and various ophthalmic problems zinc is an essential component of carbonic anhydrase and many other enzymes artificial radioactive isotopes of zinc have been employed in studies of mineral metabolism
GROUP II–B (VOLATILE METALS) zinc compounds soluble in water or in gastric fluid may be poisonous; the most readily available antidote is sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) Itai–Itai disease is believed to be caused by drinking water contaminated with cadmium
GROUP II–B (VOLATILE METALS) best antidote for mercury poisoning is sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate; egg albumen may be used in an emergency if the poisoning is discovered shortly after ingestion radioactive nuclides 197Hg and 203Hg are used in a diagnostic capacity
GROUP III–A sodium borohydride is a valuable reducing agent boron appearsto be involved in bone metabolism boric acid in solution is used as eye wash sodium borate is a frequent ingredient of cold creams, eye washes, and mouthwashes
GROUP III–A common incompatibility in the use of borate buffers is the precipitation of insoluble borates from neutral or alkaline buffers kaolin is used as adsorbent and demulcent bentonite is useful as suspending agent in paste form, elemental aluminum is employed topically as protective
GROUP III–A deaths have been recorded from thallium cosmetic use thallium compounds have been used in insecticides gallium(III) binds to transferrin, and appears to be useful in treating cancer–related hypercalcemia radioactive isotopes 67Ga, 111In, 113In, and 201Tl are used as diagnostic aids
GROUP III–B cerium, as cerium(IV), is a widely used analytical reagent
GROUP IV–A fine form of activated charcoal is used as adsorbent in the treatment of diarrhea carbon dioxide is an effective respiratory stimulant sodium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate find extensive use as gastric antacids potassium bicarbonate is used as source of potassium ion in electrolyte replenishers
GROUP IV–A ammonium carbonate is an effective reflex stimulant silicosis is a lung condition that develops after long exposure to respirable dust attapulgite has adsorptive properties like kaolin talc is used as protective and lubricant
GROUP IV–A talc must not be used on broken skin, wounds, or surgical incisions talc is a useful filtering aid magnesium trisilicate is employed as suspending agent simethicone has found use as anti–flatulent in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous distention in the gastrointestinal tract
GROUP IV–A bis–β–carboxyethyl germanium sesquioxide has immune system enhancing and antitumor effect stannous fluoride is applied topically as dental prophylactic susceptibility of stannous fluoride to oxidative and hydrolytic decomposition causes problems in the preparation and storage of suitable dosage forms lead is a cumulative poison
GROUP IV–B titanium dioxide is used as solar–ray protective several basic aluminum–zirconium compounds are used as antiperspirants; however, prohibition against use of zirconium in aerosols where inhalation is possible is still in effect
GROUP V–A nitrogen is employed as inert atmosphere in containers nitrous oxide is an inhalational general anesthetic sodium nitrite is used as antidote to cyanide poisoning; it also is a vasodilator nitric oxide is an important neurotransmitter causing responsessuch as vasodilation
GROUP V–A nitrite ion is toxic; it reacts with hemoglobin to form methemoglobin nitrate ion is reducible to nitrite in the intestine and may cause methemoglobinemia yellow phosphorus (white phosphorus) is poisonous, and causes severe, slow to heal burns; cupric sulfate is used as an antidote
GROUP V–A red phosphorus is nonpoisonous and nonflammable in air, except at high temperatures dibasic sodium phosphate is the active ingredient in various saline laxatives and enemas phosphoric acid is used to form soluble salts of insoluble medicinal bases dihydrogen phosphate–monohydrogen phosphate system is a valuable buffer in physiological ranges
GROUP V–A hypophosphorous acid is an antioxidant radioactive isotope 32P is employed therapeutically hydroxyapatite constitutes the main inorganic component of bones and teeth arsenic trioxide is used as antileukemic agent; treatment must be carefully supervised owing to possible serious adverse effects
GROUP V–A sodium arsenate 74As is used as diagnostic aid if arsenic is still in the gastrointestinal tract, freshly prepared mixture of ferric and magnesium hydroxides is administered orally as an antidote; if arsenic has already been absorbed, dimercaprol by intramuscular injection is effective antimony compounds are potentially toxic
GROUP V–A colloidal bismuth subcitrate is used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease hydrogen sulfide, from the breakdown of proteins in the gut, reacts with bismuthyl ion; as a result, stools appear black soluble bismuth compounds are poisonous; intramuscular dimercaprol is an effective antidote
GROUP V–B tantalum is used in sheet form for the surgical repair of bones; muscle tissue will attach to it as though it was a bone
GROUP VI–A (CHALCOGENS) oxygen is employed in the treatment of conditions involving hypoxia ozone, 𝑂𝟑, an allotropic form of oxygen, is a powerful oxidizing agent ozonized air is used in various disinfecting and bleaching operations hydrogen peroxide concentrate is the 30% solution; it is a powerful oxidant and must not be used on the skin
GROUP VI–A (CHALCOGENS) hydrogen peroxide topical solution is the 3% solution; it is a mild, fast acting, oxidizing germicide 6% hydrogen peroxide is the only common bleach mild enough for use on hair carbamide peroxide topical solution is preferable to hydrogen peroxide in treating oral and ear infections as an ointment, precipitated sulfur is used as scabicide
GROUP VI–A (CHALCOGENS) sulfur ointments and lotions are used as keratolytic; it also has fungicidal action sulfur dioxide is used as antioxidant and preservative sodium metabisulfite is used as antioxidant sodium thiosulfate is used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning and is a valuable analytical reagent for the determination of iodine
GROUP VI–A (CHALCOGENS) selenium sulfide is employed in the topical treatment of seborrheic dermatitis hands must be cleansed thoroughly after using because selenium is toxic selenium is an important trace element selenomethionine 75Se injection is used in the diagnosis of pancreatic tumors and growth
GROUP VI–B chromium and molybdenum are essential trace elements radioactive isotope 51Cr is employed as biological tracer
GROUP VII–A (HALOGENS) fluoride ion is being used over several decades as dental prophylactic hydrochloric acid is a pharmaceutical necessity for purposes such as neutralizing, stabilizing, or solubilizing other substances sodium, potassium, and calcium chlorides are employed in electrolyte replenishers ammonium chloride is a systemic acidifying agent
GROUP VII–A (HALOGENS) sodium hypochlorite solution (Dakin’s Solution) is an effective germicide, viricide, and deodorant because of the oxidizing power of hypochlorous acid if the skin is exposed to bromine, the area should be washed immediately with a solution of sodium bicarbonate and treated with glycerin bromide ion provides central depressant action
GROUP VII–A (HALOGENS) excessive continued dosage may elicit brominism iodine is an effective antimicrobial iodine is essential for proper thyroid functioning potassium iodide (in solution) is used to protect the thyroid when the possibility of accidental exposure to 131I is anticipated
GROUP VII–A (HALOGENS) radioactive isotopes 125I and 131I have diagnostic and therapeutic applications elemental iodine is toxic; corn starch and sodium thiosulfate are effective chemical antidotes
GROUP VII–B gastric lavage using dilute permanganate solutions is antidotal for various alkaloids and other toxic substances that have been ingested in small amounts and are readily susceptible to oxidation caution must be exercised to keep permanganate from contact with organic and other easily oxidized compounds; dangerous explosions may occur manganese is necessary for the activation of a variety of enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase
GROUP VII–B radioactive technetium 99Tc is used diagnostically in various forms rhenium has been employed as a catalyst for dehydrogenation
GROUP VIII–A (INERT GASES) helium is used to prepare synthetic airs argon is used as inert atmosphere for industrial processes in which nitrogen reacts with the materials present krypton and xenon have been investigated for possible use as anesthetics 133Xe is used for diagnostic studies
GROUP VIII–A (INERT GASES) radon is used in the treatment of certain types of cancer; sealed tubes containing the gas are embedded in the tissues to be treated radon is a public health concern because it has been found in the basements of some private homes 45
GROUP VIII–B (IRON TRIAD) iron is important in the transportation of oxygen by hemoglobin iron functions in various cytochromes sodium nitroprusside is a vasodilator presence of traces of cobalt may catalyze the physiological utilization of iron
GROUP VIII–B (IRON TRIAD) this led to the introduction of medicinal specialty products containing iron in association with cobalt for use in the treatment of iron deficiency anemias radioactive isotopes 57Co and 60Co are used diagnostically and therapeutically
GROUP VIII–B (PLATINUM METALS) platinum is used in cancer chemotherapy as cisplatin; carboplatin is another compound used in cancer therapy