Manifest Destiny Part One

Introduction to Manifest Destiny

This lecture focuses on key developments during President James K. Polk's administration related to the ideology of Manifest Destiny, including the annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the philosophical implications regarding war and slavery.

Polk’s Election and Background

James K. Polk was elected president, defeating Henry Clay. Clay expressed disbelief at his defeat, criticizing Polk as a "third-rate politician." Despite this perception, Polk was known for surprising his contemporaries.

Polk bore physical resemblance to Andrew Jackson, often referred to as "Old Hickory." Even though Polk was younger and humorless, he adopted the nickname "Young Hickory."

Polk, unlike Jackson, lacked charisma and was considered dogmatic. His work ethic negatively impacted his health, leading to his premature death at the age of 54, just three months post-presidency.

His campaign strategy included the annexation of Texas and Oregon, which he believed would maintain the balance between slave states and free states—an ambitious and risky endeavor that threatened potential conflicts with both England and Mexico.

The Road to Texas Independence and Annexation

Early American settlers, often referred to as "Anglos," began migrating into Spanish-controlled Texas in the early 1820s, seeking economic opportunities and fertile land. Mexico, inheriting Texas after its independence from Spain in 1821, initially encouraged this settlement to develop the sparsely populated region.

Moses and Stephen F. Austin & Early American Settlement

Moses Austin was the first American to secure a land grant from Spain to bring American families into Texas, but he died before fulfilling this vision. His son, Stephen F. Austin, took up the task, becoming known as the "Father of Texas." He successfully established the first significant American colony in Texas in 1822, attracting hundreds of families under agreements that required them to become Mexican citizens, convert to Catholicism, and obey Mexican laws.

Mexican Constitution and Slavery

As American immigration swelled, tensions rose between the Anglo settlers and the Mexican government. A major point of contention was slavery. Mexico had abolished slavery in 1829, which directly conflicted with the economic interests of many American settlers, particularly those from the Southern United States who brought enslaved people with them to work cotton plantations. Settlers often circumvented the law by classifying enslaved people as indentured servants for life.

Illegal Immigration into Texas

Despite tightening Mexican immigration policies in the late 1820s and early 1830s—including efforts to stop further American immigration and enforce anti-slavery laws—the flow of illegal immigrants from the U.S. into Texas continued unabated. This influx further strained relations and made it challenging for Mexico to maintain control over the region.

Santa Anna's Rise and Conflict

General Antonio López de Santa Anna became a dominant figure in Mexican politics, consolidating power as a centralist dictator. His abrogation of the Mexican Constitution of 1824 and his increasingly authoritarian rule ignited calls for independence among Texan settlers and other Mexican states. In 1835, fighting erupted between Texas colonists and Mexican troops.

The Alamo and Goliad

One of the most iconic events of the Texas Revolution was the Battle of the Alamo in February-March 1836. A small group of Texan defenders, including figures like Davy Crockett and James Bowie, held out for 13 days against Santa Anna's much larger army before being overrun. All the defenders were killed. Soon after, at Goliad, a Texan force under James Fannin surrendered and was subsequently executed by Santa Anna's orders. These events became rallying cries for Texan independence: "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!"

Sam Houston and the Battle of San Jacinto

After the defeats at the Alamo and Goliad, Sam Houston, commander of the Texan army, led a strategic retreat. On April 21, 1836, he launched a surprise attack against Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto. The battle was a decisive victory for Texas, lasting only about 18 minutes, with Santa Anna himself captured the next day.

The Treaty of Velasco and the Lone Star Republic

With Santa Anna captured, he was forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco (one public, one secret) on May 14, 1836. These treaties recognized Texas's independence and established the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, though Mexico later repudiated these agreements. Texas then became an independent nation, known as the "Lone Star Republic," existing for nearly a decade with Sam Houston as its first president.

Tyler’s Role and Texas Annexation

Before Polk could enact his plans, outgoing President John Tyler sought to secure the annexation of Texas. Tyler argued that Polk’s election indicated public support for this action, despite Mexico's continued refusal to recognize Texan independence and its warnings against annexation. Texas officially joined the United States on December 29, 1845, nearly nine years post-independence from Mexico.

Westward Expansion: Oregon Trail and Hardships

As Manifest Destiny gripped the nation, thousands of American pioneers ventured westward, driven by the promise of land, adventure, and new opportunities. The Oregon Trail became a primary route for this mass migration.

Oregon Trail

The Oregon Trail was a 2,000-mile historic route through the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, originating in Missouri and ending in Oregon City. From the 1830s to the 1860s, hundreds of thousands of pioneers traveled this arduous path by wagon train. The journey was fraught with challenges, including harsh weather, difficult terrain, limited supplies, and prevalent diseases like cholera, which claimed many lives along the way.

The Donner Party Tragedy

Among the most infamous tales of westward migration is that of the Donner Party. In 1846, led by brothers George and Jacob Donner, a group of pioneers attempted to take a shortcut known as Hastings Cutoff through what is now Nevada and Utah. Advocated by Lansford Hastings, this supposed shortcut promised to save hundreds of miles but was largely untraveled and dangerously misleading.

Hastings Cutoff

Instead of shortening the journey, Hastings Cutoff led the Donner Party through arid deserts and rugged mountain passes, causing significant delays, loss of livestock, and depletion of provisions. By late October, they became trapped by heavy snowfall in the Sierra Nevada mountains near Truckee Lake (now Donner Lake). Of the 87 members who set out, only 47 survived the winter, resorting to cannibalism to endure the starvation. George Donner himself died during the ordeal.

Expansionist Fervor and Joint Occupation of Oregon

Expansionist fervor gripped American society, with an insistence on claiming the entirety of Oregon, which was jointly occupied with England. The slogan "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" reflected the public's desire for the northern boundary of Oregon Country at latitude 54^ ext{o}40' North. Fortunately for Polk, Britain was disinclined to provoke war with the U.S. due to lucrative trade relations, leading to a compromise that established the 49th parallel as the boundary.

The Rise of the Cotton Kingdom and Economic Shifts

New economic developments in the early 19th century profoundly transformed the American landscape, particularly in the Southern states.

Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin

In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently separated cotton fibers from their seeds. This invention, often championed by his business partner Phineas Miller, dramatically reduced the labor required to process raw cotton, making short-staple cotton cultivation immensely profitable.

Impact on the Southern Economy and Slavery

The cotton gin's efficiency led to a massive expansion of cotton production across the South, transforming it into the "Cotton Kingdom." This economic boom, however, was fundamentally reliant on enslaved labor, intensifying the demand for enslaved people and solidifying the institution of slavery as a central pillar of the Southern economy. This development fueled sectional tensions that profoundly influenced national politics, including the fierce debates over the expansion of slavery into new territories acquired through events like the Mexican-American War.

The Onset of the Mexican-American War

The war was essentially triggered by disputes over Mexico's recognition of Texas's independence and the territorial boundary defined by the Rio Grande. Mexico aimed to preserve its territorial integrity while begrudgingly accepting potential losses and viewed the annexation of Texas as an act of war.

Polk, wanting a war with Mexico, claimed that American soldiers were attacked by the Mexican army on American soil in the disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. In this conflict, 11 Americans were killed and additional soldiers wounded or captured. Polk used this incident to justify a declaration of war, asserting that Mexico had invaded the U.S., leading to his appeal to Congress on May 13, 1846.

Lincoln's Opposition and Political Tensions

Abraham Lincoln, a freshman Congressman from Illinois, emerged as a critic of Polk, challenging the justification for war through his "spot resolutions," which demanded clarity on where American blood had been shed. This inquiry highlighted doubts regarding the narrative of aggression that Polk presented. Ultimately, Polk never disclosed the specific site, revealing that U.S. troops were likely positioned on Mexican territory when hostilities began.

Transcendentalism, Romanticism, and Civil Disobedience

The mid-19th century witnessed significant intellectual and cultural shifts, including the rise of Romanticism and Transcendentalism, which greatly influenced social movements and individual thought.

Romantic Literature and its Influence

Romanticism, a broader artistic and intellectual movement that swept across Europe and America from the late 18th to mid-19th centuries, emphasized emotion, individualism, the glorification of nature, and the past. In American literature, it promoted themes of self-reliance, wilderness, and the sublime, paving the way for unique philosophical movements like Transcendentalism.

Transcendentalism and Ralph Waldo Emerson

Transcendentalism emerged as a distinct American philosophical and literary movement, primarily in the 1830s and 1840s, centered in New England. Its core tenets included the inherent goodness of people and nature, the importance of self-reliance, individualism, and intuition over empirical evidence or religious dogma. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a leading figure and the intellectual father of this movement, articulating its ideas in influential essays like "Nature" and "Self-Reliance," advocating for spiritual and cultural independence from European thought.

Henry David Thoreau and Civil Disobedience

Henry David Thoreau, a close associate and disciple of Emerson, actively applied Transcendentalist principles to social and political issues. He viewed the Mexican-American War as an immoral and pro-slavery conflict designed to expand slave-holding territories. In a powerful act of protest, Thoreau refused to pay his poll tax, resulting in a brief imprisonment. This experience became the foundation for his influential essay "Civil Disobedience" (originally titled "Resistance to Civil Government"), which championed passive resistance against unjust laws and government actions. His philosophy of nonviolent protest deeply influenced later civil rights leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Conditions and Conduct of War

Both the U.S. and Mexico faced challenges in preparation for war. Many American volunteers enlisted without discipline, engaged in violence against Mexican civilians, and brought with them racist attitudes. On the Mexican side, soldiers lacked proper leadership and sometimes included conscripts from prisons who often deserted before battle. Moreover, Mexico's military supplies were compromised, further limiting their effectiveness.

Polk wished to pursue a limited war—one sufficient to achieve his territorial aims without accruing national heroes or expansive military fame.

Growing Popularity of General Taylor

General Zachary Taylor achieved significant victories against Mexican forces, gaining popularity and sometimes overshadowing Polk's role in the war. Addressed as "the commander of the conquest of Mexico," Taylor's fame posed a potential political challenge to Polk, prompting an attempt at political inquiry to gauge Taylor’s future ambitions.

The Declaring of the Republic of California

On June 14, 1846, California declared its independence from Mexico as a free republic. This declaration was facilitated by a manipulated election, leading to the formation of a government and representation via a limited, hastily designed flag that humorously referred to as the "Bear Flag" despite some ridicule. Unlike Texas, California was promptly annexed within a month.

Santa Ana’s Influence

Santa Anna's situation shaped the Mexican response during the war. Exiled to Cuba, he reached out to Polk about regaining power in exchange for ending hostilities in favor of the U.S. Polk facilitated his return, but Santa Anna did not fulfill his promise to negotiate; instead, he returned to power and escalated conflict.

Conclusion of the Mexican-American War

On September 13, 1847, General Winfield Scott led an invasion of Mexico City, culminating in raising the American flag at the capital. Post-victory, there was increasing public sentiment for further territorial expansion. However, the war's aftermath confronted the reality that millions of Mexicans inhabited the captured territories, complicating the idea of total annexation of Mexico.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, settled the war, making significant land concessions by Mexico, including Texas, California, and New Mexico for a payment of 15 million—a ratification occurring on March 10, 1848.

Analysis of the Mexican-American War

The Mexican-American War is characterized as a limited war, defined by clear objectives focused on territorial expansion. It lasted 17 months, leading to significant casualties with 1,733 American soldiers dying in battle, 4,152 sustaining severe injuries, and over 11,000 succumbing to diseases—marking it as the bloodiest U.S. conflict in terms of troops lost proportionally, at approximately 11%. The subsequent territorial gains were substantial, adding roughly half a million square miles to the U.S., with over a million when including Texas.

This was the first instance of the United States conducting an offensive war abroad, establishing a precedent in military engagement distinct from prior conflicts, thus shaping future foreign policy and military strategy while inciting a wave of national pride in the victorious outcomes of the war.