International History Flashcards

International History: Schools of Thought

  • Realism:
    • Prevailed in the 19th century, exemplified by politicians like Bismark.
    • Views world politics as a field of conflict among actors pursuing power.
    • Linked to the concept of sovereignty: the absolute authority of the state.
  • Liberalism:
    • Grounded in cooperative ideals, rejecting power politics as the only outcome.
    • Stresses mutual benefits and international cooperation.
    • Supports international organizations and non-governmental actors.

Europe on the Eve of the French Revolution

  • Central Europe:
    • Germany was not a unified nation-state.
    • Italy was composed of many smaller states.
  • Eastern Europe:
    • Dominated by Poland-Lithuania, the Ottoman Empire, and the Habsburg Empire.
    • Russia was divided by Poland and German territories.

The French Revolution (1789)

  • A turning point in international history marked by riots and rebellions.
  • Took place in France and its colonies (e.g., Haiti).
  • Established a republic, challenging monarchic Europe and the Ancient Regime.
  • Perceived as a direct threat to all European kings.
  • The revolution's impact extended beyond France to the entire continent.

The Advent of Napoleon

  • Napoleon rose to power and attempted to conquer Europe as a dictator.
  • Control of Europe (French Europe) equated to controlling the world.

Declaration of the Right of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

  • Established revolutionary values and principles still considered valid.
  • Article 1: "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights."
  • Social distinctions based on the common good.

Napoleonic Wars

  • Great Britain was the main adversary, aiming to prevent French dominance.
  • Preferred a divided Europe over a hegemonic power.
  • Coalitions shifted; Austria and Finland were both enemies and allies.
  • Great Britain consistently remained a rival.

The Napoleon Empire

  • Reached its peak in 1812.
  • Modernized Europe with administrative systems (prefects), educational systems, and legislative work (Napoleonic Code).
  • Overthrew remnants of feudalism.
  • Attracted intellectual interest (e.g., Tolstoj, Hegel).

Waterloo (18 June 1815)

  • Fought in Belgium, resulting in Napoleon's defeat by Great Britain.
  • Ended the Napoleonic period.

The Settlement of Europe After Napoleon: The Congress of Vienna

  • France participated unexpectedly, readmitted due to the reestablishment of the French Monarchy.
  • The French Monarchy and authority were deemed necessary for European stability.
  • Klemens von Metternich, Austrian statesman, was the main protagonist.
  • The goal was long-term security and peace in Europe.

Principles of the Vienna Settlement

  • Restoration: Reestablishing old boundaries of the Ancien Regime.
  • Legitimacy: Reestablishing monarchies and traditional institutions.
  • Compensation: Territorial gains for European powers that fought against Napoleon.
    • Prussia gained significantly (German territories, Swedish Pomerania), marking the start of German power and unity.

The Concert of Europe

  • Grounded on the principle of Europe (treaties, agreements, and balance of power).
  • Each nation was part of the same game, with a common will of nation-states.
  • The first war that destroyed this order started the next century.
  • Local wars (e.g., Italian unification) did not threaten the European order.
  • War was perceived as the ultimate means, with a preference for peaceful and diplomatic frameworks.
  • Allowed European countries to focus on international territories and colonialism to expand their size and power.
  • Henry Kissinger wrote about this in A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problem of Peace 1812-1822 (1957).

Exceptions to the European Peace

  • Crimean War (1853-56).
  • Italian and German Unification (1848-71).
    • These wars were limited in scope and objectives.
  • Crimean War:
    • Russia lost to an alliance of Ottomans, France, Britain, and Piedmont.
    • Russia sought to acquire the Ottoman peninsula.
    • London and Paris felt threatened, fearing for the concert of Europe.

Italian Unification

  • Italy was fragmented into small states with Lombardy and Veneto under Austrian sovereignty in 1815.
  • The "Rinascimento" was the political, social, and cultural movement that consolidated the state and the people.
  • Nationalism spread across Europe, including Italy.
  • Revolutions of 1848 were popular movements against the Congress of Vienna's outcomes.
  • Unification completed in 1861 with Turin as the capital.
  • Austria retained control of the Northern-eastern part; the Pope resisted pressure.
  • Rome was conquered in 1870 and became the capital.

German Unification

  • Germany was fragmented after the Congress of Vienna.
  • German-speaking people felt unified culturally and linguistically.
  • Prussia played a leading role, being powerful and significant in the Waterloo battle and the EU security system.
  • The German Confederation (39 states) was linked to the Austrian Empire.
  • Unification meant the fading of Austria.
  • Initial attempt by liberals, democrats, socialists, and nationalists failed due to conflicting sentiments.
  • Frankfurt Constitution was approved but failed.
  • Otto von Bismarck, a conservative statesman, led the unification as the first Chancellor until 1890.
  • He focused on "iron and blood" to achieve Prussia's goals, emphasizing realism over diplomacy.
    • This was stressed in his speech to the Budget Committee.
  • War against Denmark (1864) led to Prussian and Austrian forces crossing into Schleswig-Holstein.
  • War against Austria (1866) resulted in the establishment of the Northern Confederation.
  • War against France led to Germany winning Alsace-Lorraine (1871).
  • The Reich was proclaimed in Versailles (18 January 1871) with William I of Prussia as head.

Germany's Position in Europe

  • Germany was central between major forces, feeling at risk of encirclement.
  • Unifications simplified the map, reinforcing the concert of Europe.

Congress of Berlin (1878)

  • Reorganized the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish war.
  • Demonstrated Bismarck's defense of European order, leading negotiations.

Berlin Conference (1884-85)

  • Negotiated questions and resolved confusion over the control of Africa at Portugal's request.
  • The initial task involved the Congo Free State under the Belgian King.
  • Bismarck understood colonial issues could threaten the order, resulting in dividing Africa into fifty countries.

European Imperialism (1868-1914)

  • Peace allowed Europe to focus on strategies to expand influence abroad.
  • Main reasons for the "scramble for Africa":
    • Economic: need for markets and raw materials.
    • Military and political: colonies crucial for power, security, and nationalism.
      • Heinrich von Treitschke: "All great nations want to conquer barbarian nations."
    • Humanitarian and religious: moral obligation to civilize and spread Christianity.
      • Kipling: "The White Man’s Burden."
    • Social Darwinism: natural selection of the fittest.
      • "On the Origin of Species."
    • Technological: new advancements in medicine, weapons, and transport.
    • Geopolitical: the Suez Canal's importance for Britain.
      • Shortened travel to the Middle East and Asia, avoiding Africa's circumnavigation.

Africa's Transformation (1880-1913)

  • Changed drastically in thirty years, controlled by Great Britain and France.
  • Germany also participated in colonization.

Weakening Empires

  • Ottoman and Chinese Empires showed weaknesses in the 19th century.
  • Ottoman Empire:
    • Established in the 13th century, conquered vast territories over Europe.
    • Declined due to domestic reasons; WWI marked the end.
  • Chinese Empire:
    • European powers gained spheres of influence.
    • Great Britain expanded control through Tibet.
    • Indo-China countries were under French control.
    • Russia controlled northern China.
    • Japan defeated Russia in 1905, gaining control of Korea and Manchuria.

European Powers Before WWI

  • Five great powers: Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary.
  • Italy was a middle power.
  • Capacities for war readiness were crucial to big power status.
  • Factors included: population size, territory size, finance, and industrial products.
  • Russia had a major population size, enabling a large army.
  • France and Great Britain could utilize empires/colonies for resources.
  • Literacy was important, increasing in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Great Britain had the largest battle fleet; Germany raced in battleships.
  • Industrial development and modern railways were important for army mobilization.
  • GDP, wealth, and diplomatic skills were other power indicators.
  • Military successes were insufficient for first-rate status (e.g., US, Russo-Japanese war).
  • Europe was the center of the world; the US was seen as a regional power.
  • Japan defeated Russia but not viewed as a major power (racism).

End of European Global Domination

  • Turning point: WWI.
  • European powers rejected cooperation in favor of national interests, adopting violent solutions.
  • Three main causes:
    1. Retreat of the Ottoman Empire and Austrian weakness.
    2. Germany's new foreign policy and isolation.
    3. The arms race started by Germany.

Decline of the Ottomans (1807-1924)

  • Loss of territories impacted Austria deeply.
  • The Austrian Empire was multicultural, risking internal instability due to Balkan nationalism.
  • Rise of Balkan nationalism strained Vienna-Russia relations.

Transformation of European Alliances

  • 1879: Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria (+ Italy in 1882) was a defensive alliance.
    • Italy's move was unnatural due to rivalry with Austria but shared conservative ideals.
  • Triple Alliance signed in 1882.
  • 1887: Reinsurance Treaty until 1890 by Bismarck provided neutrality if either Russia or Germany was involved in a war with a third power (excluding attacks by Germany on France or Russia on Austria-Hungary).

New German Leadership (1890)

  • Wilhelm the Second (1888-1918) forced Bismarck to resign, appointing Leon Von Capini.
  • New doctrine (Weltpolitik): colonization imperative for great nation status.
  • Rivalry with France and Great Britain, who rejected the challenge.

Formation of New Alliances

  • France and Russia established a treaty (1891-94) against German threat.
  • 1904: Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale (security against Germany).
    • Granted freedom of action to Great Britain in Egypt and France in Morocco.
  • 1907: Russia joined the agreement.

Anglo-German Naval Arms Race

  • Started by Germany due to Weltpolitik.
  • Alfred Von Tripitz implemented fleet risk concept; German fleet strength would deter Britain.
  • Great Britain reacted by building a new Navy (Dreadnoughts).
  • Germanophobia reflected in British newspapers.

Crises Erupting Before WWI

  • Two Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911):
    • Wilhelm supported the Sultan of Morocco, deteriorating relations with France.
  • Balkan Wars (1912-13):
    • Four states defeated Ottomans, enlarging Serbia.
    • Pushed for a union of South Slavic people, threatening the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.
    • Sped up German rearmament.

Pre-WWI Alliance System

  • Triple Alliance (Italy left) VS. Triple Entente.
  • Main causes for WWI:
    • Military buildup.
    • Defense alliances.
    • Widespread nationalism.
    • Disputes and crisis.

The Spark of WWI

  • Assassination of Francis Ferdinand and his wife in June 1914 in Sarajevo.
  • Garvilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist member of the Black Hand, aimed for Yugoslavian freedom from Austria.

European Leaders Before WWI

  • Described as sleepwalkers.
  • Responsibility spread among all countries and leaders.
  • Rulers of Great Britain, Russia, and Germany were first cousins.
  • German Blank Cheque: Germany supported Austria's measures against Serbia.
    • Germany believed Austria was ready for war and that a rapid strike would present Europe with a "fait accompli."
    • Germany believed it could ride a war without Russia's participation but Russia entered in August 1914.

The European Crisis

  • Germany challenged the European order but not solely responsible.
  • France offered Russia a blank check.
  • Austria was a victim, but delayed the attack against Serbia and prompted an investigation of the assassination involvement.
  • Italy declared neutrality and later sided with Great Britain, France, and Russia through the Treaty of London.

The First World War

  • Global war involving societies, economies, citizens, and human resources.
  • Civilians were considered potential targets.
  • Lasted long due to diplomatic stalemate.
    • Germany sought balance between itself and France/Russia.
    • Austria sought to eliminate Serbia.
    • United Kingdom sought to eliminate Germany.
    • France sought to take control of Alsace-Lorraine.
    • Russia sought to take control of the Turkish straits.

Military Stalemate

  • Source of empowerment and emancipation, especially for women replacing men at work.

Breakdown of Triple Stalemate

  • The Russian Revolution:
    • Slogan: "Peace, land and bread."
    • Lenin: WWI was an imperialist predatory war.
    • The Brest-Litovsk Treaty: Russian territories lost to Germany.
  • The American entry into WWI:
    • German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann made a secret offer to Mexico.
    • Germany was sinking American merchant ships.

American Entry into WWI

  • USA declared war on Germany; Woodrow Wilson played a crucial role.
  • War caused by international anarchy and a lawless system (liberal interpretation).
  • Wilson's goals:
    • America was not an ally but an associate power.
    • Impose a liberal peace on belligerents.
    • "Peace without victory,” achieving a just peace without bitter memories.

Wilson's 14 Points

  • Aimed as an alternative to Bolshevism.
  • A milestone document:
    1. Open covenants of peace openly arrived at (end of secret diplomacy).
    2. Freedom of the seas, in peace and war.
    3. Equality of trade conditions.
    4. Reduction of armaments.
    5. A League of Nation to guarantee independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

France and Great Britain's Aims

  • GB wanted to eliminate Germany as a naval and colonial rival.
  • France wanted Alsace-Lorraine and to put Germany on their knees.

American Intervention

  • Triggered the shift of balance.
  • USA made a great contribution in terms of supply, raw materials, machinery and finance.
  • The armistice was signed on November 11 1918.
  • The war America fought was to end all wars, Wilson remarked his doctrine.

Liberal Internationalism

  • USA with a providential mission to remake the world in its image.
  • Led to promote free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination.
  • Principle of self-determination was particular important as a imperative principle of action
  • "National aspirations must be respected, people may be dominated by their own consent."
  • They reacted with irony to the 14 points, as Europeans had very opposite point of views. On the other hand, Germans welcomed 14 points because as Germany agreed to a just peace, which was way more beneficial.
  • Official end with the treaty of Versaille.
  • German had to pay with the Kaiser abdication.
  • There was a complicated situation because of hunger and people started to revolt. Many revolutions and riots spread all over Europe. 1918-1923 many countries experience civil wars and other minor conflicts, each one was a consequence of WWI.

Post-WWI Conflicts

  • Russian Civil War: Red vs. White Russians.
  • Turkey vs. Greece (1919-22).
  • Italy civil war was fought 1919-1920.
  • Mussolini put pressured on the king and the parlament and in 1922 stared to trasform the democratic system into a totalitarian. Pluralism was put aside.
  • German military rebellion in 1918 against Wilhelm II, leading to the Weimar Republic.

Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920)

  • Differences from the Congress of Vienna: the defeated countries were not invited to attend the conference (France was invited in Vienna and had a relevant role).
  • Because of the western leadership, Japan was excluded from this council.

Conflicting Aims at Versailles

  • Wilson naively unable to convince other leaders to adopt his perspective.
  • French aims: permanently weakening Germany, preventing German rearmament, preventing French rearmament. This included a long accommodation. A security alliance with Great Britain and America was asked for, signing a military pact in order to isolate Germany.
  • British government did not want to an establishment for a French hegemonic power in Europe. They agreed with France and on punishing German but at the same time they did not want to support the rise of the French
  • Final victim of this decision was Germany.
  • Guilt clause too punitive to Germany.
  • The US at the end of the war was a larger creditor but didn’t remove the huge amount of war debts. This acted as a vicious circle.

Territory Loss

  • Versailles: Germany had to pay 132 billions of gold marks to cover civilian damage.
  • Other decisions of the conference included territory loss in favour of France and Poland to be reestablished as a nation state.
  • There was a territory in the border with France which was demilitarised: buffer zone for national security.

Criticism of the Treaty

  • John Maynard Keynes abandoned Versailles criticising leaders saying the treaty in his bestseller, “The economic consequences of the peace,” as detestable and abhorrent.
  • Imposed the Cartaginian peace(brutal peace intended to cripple any losing side).
  • In 1922 the reparation commission (three European countries) in a meeting declared Germany in default of reparations payments, terms needed to be changed and this triggered a crucial decision which was the French and Belgian occupation of Rhineland
    In 1924 the US in order to help Weinar Republic started a program to promote a recovery for Germany economic development. The harsh conditions imposed nourish the “stab in the back” legend.

League of Nations (1920)

  • Held in Geneva in order to solve disputes trough the international law it favoured discussion and put aside diplomacy.
  • Wilson paradoxically did not join which was a bad decision.
    Main goals were the Covenant obliged the member countries to observe the rule of law in international affairs, reduce armaments and preserve territorial integrity and independence of the member states
  • This is important because article 5 of NATO established in 1949 is a clause of solidarity strictly similar because it commits each member state to consider an armed attack against one member state to be an armed attack to all members.
    By ratifying it, the US would be bound to defend a LoN member if it was attacked.
  • Republicans so demonstrated to be against the Covenant (especially article X). US Congress divided into: Democrats, Republicans with Henry Cabot Lodge and the uncompensating attitude and reservationists.
  • The debate was discussed in two. The senate rejected the treaty but signed a separate peace with Germany.

Treaties

  • America increased dollar diplomacy financial commitment in Europe, attempt to Europe to stabilise with the support of economic projects, it was promoted by the private sector. And in 1922 the USA hosted the Washington Naval Conference, mildston in the history of international diplomacy.
    In Paris many treaties were signed, one of these was the establishment of the “mandate system” (soft colonialism) which was an authorization granted by the League of Nations to a member nation to govern a former German or Ottoman colony. These areas where divided in three groups with certain conditions to respect etc…
    After WWII new nation states were established like Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Estonia, Lituania, Latvia and a new Russia rose as the USSR… there was the impact in making smaller territory which was still German speakers, who wanted to be part of Germany.
    Hungary in 1867 had been recognized as an autonomous region in the Austrian empire becoming Austrian-Hungarian but despite this Hungary included many nationalities.
    The main differences between the start and the end of WWI is the states between Russia and Western states
  • This peace brought many disappointments in many countries and revisionism grew
  • In Russia, Germany and Italy Revisionism states who wants to put an end to the existing system. Contrary was Germany and in Italy it grew the belief for the mutilated victory (key reason for Italy to become fascist)
    Italy signed the Pacto of London with France and GB and in case of victory it was promise Trento, South Tyrol, Trieste and Dalmazia + some islands. This was incompatible with the self-determination principle.
    Yugoslavia claimed its national sovereignty over Dalmazia, and the birth of this new state supported by Wilson, Great Britain and France, made it impossible for Italy to control for these areas as seen a broken promise led to political actions.

Russia's Isolation after the Peace Conference

  • Why Russia was not invited: treaty with Germany in 1918, communism as not accepted and supporting wites.
  • Russia felt to be threatened by hostile countries
  • 1924 - year lenin dies. they adopt the dual- track policy - formally still promoting worldwide revolution but indeed tried to adopt a new slogan called,