Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1: Anatomy and Physiology

1.1A
Anatomy: Study of the structure of organisms and their parts.

1.1B
Levels of Anatomy:

  • Gross (macroscopic)

  • Microscopic (cells, tissues)

  • Developmental (embryology)

1.1C
Physiology: Study of the function of body parts and systems.

1.1D
Levels of Physiology:

  • Cellular

  • Organ systems

  • Organism level

1.1E
Structure and Function: The form of a structure relates to its function (e.g., the heart’s shape fits its pumping function).

1.2A
Study Other Organisms: Helps us understand human biology and evolution.

1.3A
Six Levels of Organization:

  1. Chemical

  2. Cellular

  3. Tissue

  4. Organ

  5. Organ System

  6. Organism

1.3B
Characteristics of the Six Levels:

  • Chemical: Atoms and molecules

  • Cellular: Basic unit of life

  • Tissue: Groups of similar cells

  • Organ: Composed of tissues

  • Organ System: Group of organs working together

  • Organism: Entire body functioning together

1.3C
11 Organ Systems:

  1. Integumentary

  2. Skeletal

  3. Muscular

  4. Nervous

  5. Endocrine

  6. Cardiovascular

  7. Lymphatic

  8. Respiratory

  9. Digestive

  10. Urinary

  11. Reproductive

1.3D
Functions of Each System:

  • Integumentary: Protection

  • Skeletal: Support

  • Muscular: Movement

  • Nervous: Communication

  • Endocrine: Hormone regulation

  • Cardiovascular: Circulation

  • Lymphatic: Immune defense

  • Respiratory: Gas exchange

  • Digestive: Nutrient absorption

  • Urinary: Waste elimination

  • Reproductive: Reproduction

1.4A
Six Characteristics of Life:

  1. Metabolism

  2. Growth

  3. Responsiveness

  4. Movement

  5. Reproduction

  6. Homeostasis

1.5A
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

1.5B
Why Homeostasis is Important: Ensures normal body functions and survival.

1.5C
Negative Feedback: Counteracts changes (e.g., body temperature regulation).

1.5D
Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes (e.g., childbirth contractions).

1.6A
Anatomical Position: Standing, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

1.6B
Directional Terms:

  • Superior (above)

  • Inferior (below)

  • Anterior (front)

  • Posterior (back)

  • Medial (toward midline)

  • Lateral (away from midline)

  • Proximal (closer to body)

  • Distal (farther from body)

1.6C
Body Parts and Regions:

  • Head, neck, trunk, limbs

  • Regions: Thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, etc.

1.6D
Body Planes:

  1. Sagittal (left and right)

  2. Coronal (front and back)

  3. Transverse (top and bottom)

1.6E
Cutting Organs:

  1. Longitudinal (along the length)

  2. Cross-section (perpendicular)

  3. Oblique (diagonal)

1.6F
Trunk Cavities:

  • Thoracic (chest)

  • Abdominal (stomach area)

  • Pelvic (lower abdomen)

1.6G
Organ Locations:

  • Thoracic: Heart, lungs

  • Abdominal: Stomach, liver

  • Pelvic: Bladder, reproductive organs

1.6H
Serous Membranes:

  • Pericardium (heart)

  • Pleura (lungs)

  • Peritoneum (abdominal cavity)

Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life

2.1A
Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Mass: Amount of matter.
Weight: Mass affected by gravity.

2.1B
Elements vs Atoms:

  • Elements: Pure substances (e.g., oxygen).

  • Atoms: Smallest unit of an element.

2.1C
4 Most Abundant Elements: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen.

2.1D
Subatomic Particles:

  • Protons: Positive, in nucleus

  • Neutrons: Neutral, in nucleus

  • Electrons: Negative, outside nucleus

2.1E
Definitions:

  • Atomic number: Protons

  • Mass number: Protons + neutrons

  • Isotope: Same element, different neutrons

  • Atomic mass: Average mass of isotopes

  • Mole: 6.022 x 10²³ particles

2.1F
Ionic vs Covalent Bonds:

  • Ionic: Transfer of electrons

  • Covalent: Sharing of electrons

2.1G
Molecule vs Compound:

  • Molecule: 2+ atoms together

  • Compound: 2+ different elements together

2.1H
Hydrogen Bond: Weak bond between hydrogen and electronegative atoms (important for water’s properties).

2.1I
Solubility/Dissociation: Solubility is the ability to dissolve; dissociation is when a compound breaks into ions (e.g., salt in water).

2.1J
Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes:

  • Electrolytes: Conduct electricity (dissolve into ions)

  • Nonelectrolytes: Don’t conduct (don’t dissociate into ions).

2.2C
Hydrolysis: Breaking down compounds by adding water (e.g., digestion).

2.2D
Chemical Equilibrium: When forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate.

2.2E
Potential vs Kinetic Energy:

  • Potential: Stored energy

  • Kinetic: Energy in motion

2.2F
Exergonic vs Endergonic Reactions:

  • Exergonic: Release energy

  • Endergonic: Absorb energy

2.2G
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate: Temperature, concentration, catalysts.

2.3A
Inorganic vs Organic:

  • Inorganic: No carbon (e.g., water, salts)

  • Organic: Contains carbon (e.g., carbohydrates, lipids)

2.3B
Water’s Properties:

  • Polar, good solvent, temperature buffer, cohesion/adhesion.

2.3C
pH Scale: Measures acidity/alkalinity (7 is neutral, <7 is acidic, >7 is basic).

2.3D
Buffers: Prevent pH changes by absorbing/releases H⁺ ions.

2.3E
O2 vs CO2:

  • O2: Needed for cellular respiration

  • CO2: Waste product of respiration

2.4A
Macromolecules:

  • Carbohydrates: Energy

  • Lipids: Long-term energy, cell membrane

  • Proteins: Structure, enzymes

  • Nucleic acids: Genetic info

2.4B
Enzymes: Catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

2.4C
Nucleotides: Building blocks of DNA, RNA, and ATP.

Chapter 3: Cells and Cell Functions

3.1A
Parts of a Cell: Nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, organelles.

3.3A
Plasma Membrane: Protects and regulates what enters and exits the cell.

3.3B
Chemical Components of Plasma Membrane: Phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol.

3.4A
Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids form a bilayer, cholesterol stabilizes membrane.

3.4B
Fluid-Mosaic Model: Membrane is flexible and made of diverse components.

3.5A
Integral vs Peripheral Proteins:

  • Integral: Embedded in membrane

  • Peripheral: Attached to surface

3.5B
Functions of Membrane Proteins: Transport, receptors, enzymes, cell recognition.

3.6A
Membrane Passage: Selectively permeable, allows small/nonpolar molecules through.

3.6B
Transport Methods:

  1. Diffusion

  2. Osmosis

  3. Active transport

3.6C
Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

3.6D
Osmosis: Water movement through a semi