Comprehensive Study Notes: History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist. 1012)

Introduction and Overview of the Module

• Target Audience: This teaching material is designed for students in Ethiopian Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) as part of a common course.

• Educational Goals: The module aims to foster an understanding of:     * The role of history in human life and nation/state building.     * The formation of identity and how personalities influence historical trajectories.     * The evolution of societies and the current interweaving of socio-cultural, religious, economic, and political experiences in Ethiopia and the Horn.

• Methodological Focus: Emphasis is placed on the history of peoples rather than just the history of ruling elites. It utilizes a chronological and thematic approach, incorporating local histories across different periods from ancient times up to $1995$.

• Module Structure:     * Unit One: Definitions, significance, and methods of history, including the regional introduction.     * Unit Two: Human evolution, the Neolithic Revolution, peopling patterns, and religious processes.     * Unit Three: Ancient states, external contacts, and cultural achievements (writing, calendars, numerals) through the end of the $13^{th}$ century.     * Unit Four: Internal transformations and external relations from the late $13^{th}$ to the early $16^{th}$ century.     * Units Five to Seven: Covering conflicts, foreign interventions, the Gondarine period, modern state formation, and developments up to the ratification of the FDRE Constitution in $1995$.

Nature and Uses of History

• Nature of History:     * Etymology: Derived from the Greek word istoria, meaning "learning through enquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries."     * The Father of History: Herodotus ($c. 484$-$425$ BC) is credited as the first to systematically investigate and document historical events.     * Definition: History is the systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. It involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information to find patterns and establish meaning through interpretation.     * Distinction from Natural Sciences: Historically, like scientists, historians select specific topics. While other social sciences study human-environment interactions in the present, history studies these interactions in the past framework of continuous change.     * Periodization: The past is divided into distinct periods (Ancient, Medieval, and Modern) to convey key characteristics of specific eras.

• Uses of History:     * Understanding the Present: History acts as a storehouse of information to analyze human behavior and trace the origins of modern societal problems.     * Sense of Identity: It provides a collective memory that allows communities to define themselves and orient their relationships with others.     * Development of Tolerance: Studying diverse past societies reduces cultural provincialism and fosters broad-mindedness.     * Critical Skills: It teaches research skills, such as evaluating evidence and constructing coherent arguments.     * Scientific Foundation: It serves as a "mother discipline" for literature, art, philosophy, sociology, and economics.     * Aesthetic Interest: Provides fascination through exploration of distant lives.

• Abuse of History: History is abused when it is deliberately manipulated to fit current political agendas (written "backwards"), whereas legitimate historians subject their work to independent verification.

Sources and Methods of Historical Study

• Classification of Sources:     * Primary Sources: Survived traces of the past original in proximity to events. Examples: Manuscripts, diaries, letters, inscriptions, chronicles, hagiographies, court records, travel documents, maps, audiovisual materials, fossils, coins, and buildings.     * Secondary Sources: Second-hand published/unpublished accounts written after an event, providing interpretations. Examples: Books, textbooks, biographies, articles, theses, dissertations, and movies.     * Oral Data: Consists of Oral Tradition (stories/songs passed down generations) and Oral History (testimonies of lived experiences).

• Historical Method: Historians conduct a scientific examination of evidence, subjecting data to critical evaluation for authenticity and reliability.     * Primary sources are checked for forgery.     * Secondary sources are checked for reconstruction reliability.     * Oral data is cross-checked to account for potential distortion over time.

Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

• General Background: Historiography is the history of historical writing. Significant early figures include Thucydides ($c. 455$-$400$ BC) and Chinese historian Sima Qian ($145$-$86$ BC).

• Modern Historiography: Leopold Von Ranke ($1795$-$1886$), based in Berlin, established history as an independent discipline and is known as the "father of modern historiography."

• Early Regional Accounts:     * Periplus of the Erythrean Sea: Anonymous author, $1^{st}$ century.     * Christian Topography: Cosmas Indicopleustes, $6^{th}$ century Greek sailor.

• Ethiopian Manuscripts and Hagiographies:     * Abba Gerima monastery manuscript ($7^{th}$ century).     * Haiq Estifanos monastery manuscript ($13^{th}$ century).     * Hagiographies: Focus on saints' lives but contain marginalia providing historical insights. Examples include accounts of Muslim saints like Shaykh Ja'far Bukko ($late 19^{th}$ century).

• Chronicles: Indigenous tradition of history writing by court scribes.     * Earliest: The Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion.     * Last: Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu.

• Arabic and European Sources:     * al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta ($10^{th}$ and $14^{th}$ centuries).     * Shihab al-Din's Futuh al-Habasha: Accounts of the $16^{th}$ century wars between Adal and the Christian kingdom.     * Al-Haymi ($1647$): Account of the Yemeni delegation to the court of Fasiledes.     * Abba Bahrey ($1593$): Ge'ez account of Oromo socio-political organization.     * Francisco Alvarez: The Prester John of the Indies ($16^{th}$ century).     * James Bruce: Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile ($18^{th}$ century, $5$ volumes).     * Hiob Ludolf: Founder of Ethiopian studies, wrote Historia Aethiopica based on Abba Gorgorios's information.

• Professionalization:     * Pre-$1935$ Writers: Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn, and others distancing themselves from the adulatory tone of chronicles.     * Post-Liberation: Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria, Yilma Deressa, and Blatten geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel (Zikre Neger).     * Academic Era ($1963$): Opening of the Department of History and the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) at Haile Selassie I University. Richard Pankhurst was the first IES Director.

The Geographical Context

• Regional Definition: Includes Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

• Drainage Systems:     1. White Nile - Blue Nile (Abay): Flows from Uganda/Ethiopia to Khartoum, then Egypt into the Mediterranean.     2. Awash River System: Links Central Ethiopia highlands with the Danakil Depression.     3. Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes: Self-contained basin from Lake Ziway to Lake Turkana ($formerly Rudolf$).     4. Gibe-Gojeb-Omo: Links SW Ethiopia to northern Kenyan lowlands.     5. Shebele and Genale: Genale becomes the Jubba in Somalia; Shebele disappears in the sand near the coast.

• Topography and Environmental Zones:     * Eastern Lowland: Narrow coastal strip (Eritrea/Djibouti) to the Ogaden and Somalia. Characterized by hot, dry conditions with regular monsoon winds.     * Highland Massif: Starts in Eritrea and continues to Southern Ethiopia, divided by the Rift Valley.     * Western Lowlands: Hot, forested foothills on the Sudan borderlands along the Nile tributaries.

Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural

• Biological Evolution Timelines:     * Earliest life: $3$ to $1$ billion years BP.     * Mammals: $200$-$170$ million years BP.     * Hominidae separated from Pongidae (chimps, gorillas, etc.).

• Key Fossil Discoveries:     * Chororapithecus: $10$ million BP (Anchar, $2007$).     * Ardipithicus kadabba: $5.8$-$5.2$ million BP (Middle Awash).     * Ardipithicus ramidus: $4.2$ million BP (Aramis, $1994$).     * Australopithecus afarensis (Selam): $3.3$ million BP (Dikika, $2000$).     * Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy/Dinkinesh): $c. 3.18$ million BP, discovered at Hadar ($1974$). Height: $1.07\,m$, weight: $30\,kg$, $40\%$ complete body.     * Australopithecus garhi: $2.5$ million BP (Bouri).     * Homo habilis: $2$-$2.5$ million BP (Lower Omo). "Skillful use of hands."     * Homo erectus: $1.6$ million BP (Melka Kunture, Konso). Brain size: $900$-$1100\,cc$. Walking upright.     * Archaic Homo sapiens (Bodo): $400,000$ BP. Brain size: $1300$-$1400\,cc$.     * Homo sapiens sapiens (Kibish): $195,000$ BP (oldest modern human fossil).

• Cultural Evolution (Stone Age):     * Mode I (Oldowan): Crude, mono-facial, direct percussion. Created by Homo habilis near Gona ($2.52$ million BP).     * Mode II (Acheulean): Bifacial, pointed, indirect percussion. Created by Homo erectus ($1.7$ million BP).     * Mode III (Sangoon): Refined production using obsidian ($300,000$ BP).     * Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): $3.4$ million to $11,000$ BP. Development of language and sex-based division of labor (males hunt fauna, females gather flora).     * Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): $11,000$-$10,000$ BP (transition).     * Neolithic (New Stone Age): $10,000$-$6,000$ BP.

The Neolithic Revolution

• Shift in Lifestyle: Transformation from mobile hunting-gathering to sedentary domestication of plants and animals due to climatic shifts and population increases.

• Cultivated Crops in the Horn: Eragrotis teff, dagussa (eleusine coracana), nug (guzotia), and ensete ventricosum.

• Evidence Sites:     * Emba-Fakeda: Polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones.     * Gobodara rock shelter: Agricultural stone tools.     * Lalibela Cave: Domesticated cattle and vegetable remains.     * Lake Basaqa: Cattle domestication evidence.

Peopling of the Region: Language and Settlement

• Linguistic Diversity: Approximately $90$ languages with $200$ dialects.

• Afro-Asiatic Super Family:     * Cushitic: Northern (Beja), Central (Agaw: Kunfel, Qimant, Bilen, etc.), Eastern (Afar, Oromo, Sidama, Somali, Hadiya, etc.), Southern (Dhalo).     * Semitic: North (Ge'ez, Tigre, Tigrigna), South-Transverse (Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Silte), South-Outer (Gafat, Gurage).     * Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bench, Dorze, Keficho, Wolayta, Yem, etc.

• Nilo-Saharan Family: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kunama, Mursi, Nyangatom, etc.

• Settlement Trends:     * Cushites: Largest group, spread from Sudan to Tanzania.     * Semites: Second largest, northern/northeastern/central Horn.     * Omotics: Mostly SW Ethiopia (Omo River basin).     * Nilotes: Mostly along the Ethio-Sudanese border.

• Economic Formations:     * Pastoralism: Camels, goats, cattle (Eastern lowlands/Afar/Somali).     * Mixed Farming: Highlands (Cushites/Semites/Omotics from $10,000$ BP).     * Shifting Cultivation: Nilotes (sorghum/millet staplers).

Religion and Religious Processes

• Indigenous Religions: Belief in a Supreme Being and sacred natural phenomena.     * Waqeffanna (Oromo): Belief in Waqa (God). Spirits include Ayyana, Atete, and Ekera. Irrecha festival is a major thanksgiving.     * Hadiya (Fandanano): Wa'a is the Supreme Being; sun/moon are his eyes.     * Others: Magano (Kambata), Diban (Agaw), Ha'o (Yem), Yero (Keficho), Kuoth Nhial (Nuer).     * Syncretism: The intermixing of indigenous beliefs with Christianity or Islam.

• Judaism: Bete-Israel (practicing Haymanot). Origins traced to the Dan Tribe, Menilek I, or local Agaw converts.

• Christianity:     * State religion since $334$ AD (King Ezana).     * Aedesius and Frementius (Kasate Birhane) converted the king.     * Nine Saints (Byzantine Empire, $Ella Amida II$) translated spiritual texts to Ge'ez.     * $1959$: Abune Basilios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

• Islam:     * $610$ AD: First followers fled Makkah (First Hijra) to Aksum.     * King Armah (Ahmed al-Nejash) provided asylum.     * Establishment: Dahlak Islands ($8th$ century); Zeila (gateway to interior); Harar (center of learning); Sheikh Hussein (expansion to Bale).

Ancient States and Political Organizations

• State Formation Factors: Sedentary agriculture, surplus production (ox-drawn plough), labor specialization, and trade growth.

• Punt: Earliest recorded state.     * Pharaoh Sahure ($2743$-$2731$ BC): Collected myrrh/ebony.     * Queen Hatshepsut ($1490$-$1468$ BC): Best documented expedition; King Perehu and Queen Ati of Punt.     * Products: Frankincense, leopard skins, monkeys, giraffes, gold.

• Da'amat: Center south of Aksum ($c. 1000$ BC at Yeha).     * Title: Mukarib. Gods: Almouqah, Astater.

• Aksumite State:     * Nucleus formed $c. 200$-$100$ BC.     * Port: Adulis. Major rulers: Zoscales ($c. 76$-$89$), Aphilas, Endybis (minted coins).     * International trade: Exports (ivory, spices, emeralds) to Egypt, India, Persia.     * Military Campaigns: King Gadarat ($c. 200$ AD) and Kaleb ($500$-$535$) in South Arabia against Dhu-Nuwas.     * Decline ($7th$ century): Port of Adulis destroyed in $702$ AD by Arabs; ecological degradation and Beja rebellions.

• Zagwe Dynasty ($c. 1150$-$1270$):     * Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot founded it after marrying the daughter of Dil Na'od (last Aksumite king).     * Architecture: $11$ Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela (UNESCO heritage $1978$). Types: Cave (Bete Meskel), Semi-hewn (Bete Denagil), Monolithic (Bete Giyorgis - shape of a cross).

• Other Early States: Bizamo ($8th$ century), Damot (King Motalami in $13th$ century), Enarya (divine kingship/Hinnare-Tato), Gafat.

• Muslim Sultanates: Shewa (Makhzumite, $896$ AD), Ifat (Walasma dynasty, $1271$-$1285$ under Umar Walasma), Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali, Moqadishu ($1269$).

Economic Bases and Achievements (Ancient Period)

• Land Tenure:     * Rist: Birthright to land by kin/lineage.     * Gult: Right to levy tribute from rist owners on behalf of the government.     * Riste-gult: Hereditary gult rights.

• Architecture: Aksumite stelae (stela).     * Tallest ($33\,m$): Broken.     * Second ($24\,m$): Taken to Rome ($1937$), returned ($2005$).     * Third ($21\,m$): Functional and standing.

• Writing System: Ge'ez (alpha-syllabary). Evolved from Sabean (no vowels). Wazeba's coins had vocalized letters. Fully vocalized by Ezana ($c. 330$ AD).

• Calendars:     * Oromo: Based on $Urjii Dhahaa$ (guiding stars). $29.5$ days/month, $354$ days/year.     * Sidama: $13$ months, $12$ months of $28$ days, $13th$ of $29$ days.     * Ethiopian Solar: $12$ months of $30$ days plus $Pagume$ ($5$ or $6$ days). $7$-$8$ year gap with Gregorian calendar.     * Islamic: Lunar, $354$/$355$ days, starts from Hijra ($622$ AD).

• Numerals: Ge'ez numerals lack characters for multiples of $100$.

The "Solomonic" Dynasty and Internal Conflict ($1270$-$1520$s)

• Restoration: Yekunno-Amlak ($r. 1270$-$1285$) defeated Yetbarek (Zagwe). Claims descent from Solomon/Sheba via the Kibre Negest.

• Succession Control: Establishment of the royal prison at Amba Gishen (Widim-Ra'ad). By the mid-$15th$ century, $590$ princes were sequestered there.

• Power Consolidation:     * Amde-Tsion ($r. 1314$-$1344$): Expanded territory extensively. Conquered Damot/Hadiya ($1316$-$1317$). Brought Ifat, Dawaro, and Bali to tribute-paying status.     * Zara-Yaqob ($r. 1434$-$1468$): Attempted radical centralization through church involvement and military reorganization.

• Military Administration:     * Chewa: Military regiments organized by region.     * Officer Titles: Ras ($40,000$ men), Dejjazmach ($10,000$), Fitawrari ($10,000$), and others commanding $2,000$-$5,000$.     * Units: Territorial forces (named after provinces) and elite contingents (Tekula, Qeste neheb).

• Christian-Muslim Relations:     * Implementation of the tributary system for peaceful cooperation.     * Hostilities stemmed from control over trade routes ("terrain and trade").     * Battle of Yeguba ($1445$): Zara-Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay.     * Emir Mahfuz ($Adal$) killed in battle against Lebne-Dengel ($July 1517$).

Questions & Discussion

• Inquiry on History: Discussion on how perceptions of history differ as accounts versus independent facts.

• Significance of Fossils: Analysis of why Lucy attracted global attention (due to bipedalism and age).

• Stone Age Developments: Clarifying the shift from hunting-gathering to domestication.

• Linguistic Importance: How study of language families informs understanding of regional migration and culture.

• Ancient State Factors: The role of the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden in Aksum's dominance.

• The Queen of Sheba Legend: Evaluation of its political weight in establishing "Solomonic" legitimacy ($1270$-$1974$).