Final Exam Study Guide - History Themes Summary

Renaissance

  • Medici Family: Banking family in Florence, patrons of the arts (Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci).

  • Humanism: Focused on human potential, classical learning.

  • Printing Press: Invented by Gutenberg, spread knowledge, increased literacy.

    • Impact: Rebirth of art/science, questioning authority.

Reformation

  • Martin Luther: 95 Theses (1517), criticized indulgences.

  • Indulgences: Payments to reduce sin punishment.

  • Peace of Augsburg (1555): Princes choose Catholicism/Lutheranism.

    • Impact: Shattered Christian unity, Protestant churches.

Scientific Revolution

  • Isaac Newton: Laws of motion, universal gravitation.

  • Johannes Kepler: Laws of planetary motion (ellipses).

  • Science vs. Religion: Church resisted conflicting scientific ideas.

    • Impact: Observation/reason over dogma, foundation for modern science.

Enlightenment

  • John Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property), government protection.

  • Rousseau: "General will," social contract, majority rule.

  • Voltaire: Freedom of speech/religion.

  • Montesquieu: Separation of powers.

  • Salons: Social gatherings for discussion.

    • Impact: Democratic revolutions, secularism, individual rights, rational government.

French Revolution

  • Revolutionary Ideals: Liberty, equality, fraternity.

  • Versailles: Royal palace, symbol of excess.

  • Figures Involved:

    • Robespierre: Reign of Terror.
    • Louis XVI: Executed.
    • Napoleon Bonaparte: Rose to power.

  • Impact: Ended feudal privileges, spread nationalism, citizen participation.

Exploration & Exchange

  • Columbian Exchange: Transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases.

    • To Europe: Potatoes, maize, tomatoes.
    • To Americas: Horses, smallpox, wheat.

  • Mercantilism: Colonies enrich mother country.

    • Impact: European dominance, Indigenous devastation, global trade.

Industrial Revolution

  • Steam Engine: Powered machines, boosted production.

  • Capitalism: Private ownership, profit.

  • Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations, free markets.

    • Impact: Urbanization, factory work, class struggles, pollution.

Connections & Broader Themes

  • Scientific Progress: Renaissance inquiry to Industrial invention.
  • Social Transformation: Reformation/Enlightenment challenged authority.
  • Economic Change: Exploration brought wealth; mercantilism/capitalism reshaped economies.
  • Cultural Development: Humanism, Enlightenment transformed art, philosophy.