AP Human Geography Review Flashcards
Unit 1: Maps and Spatial Data
Maps: Thematic maps (show spatial distribution of one or more attributes), reference maps (general purpose, show a variety of features), and map projections (transform Earth’s spherical surface onto a flat plane).
Important to read and analyze maps, identify patterns at different scales (local, regional, global), and interpret data. Understanding map types aids in geographical analysis.
Map projections have distortion in shape (form of features), area (relative size), distance (between points), or direction (angle from one point to another). Different projections prioritize different properties.
Example: Mercator map distorts shape and size (especially at poles), but direction is accurate (used for naval expeditions). Useful for navigation but not for comparing areas.
GIS (Geographic Information Systems): Layers data on maps, revealing spatial relationships. GIS is used for analysis, decision-making, and visualizing data.
Research: Qualitative and quantitative research. Both are essential in geographic studies.
Quantitative: Numerical data (e.g., census data), not up for discussion. Objective and measurable.
Qualitative: Attitudes, beliefs, feelings (subject to interpretation). Subjective and descriptive, provides context.
Governments and businesses use both types of data for decisions (e.g., school locations, store placements, zoning laws). Data informs policy and strategy.
Spatial Concepts: Technology and communication reduce distance decay (interaction declines with distance), increasing connectivity. Globalization enhances these effects.
Patterns and space create a sense of place (unique attributes and meaning) or cultural landscape (visible imprint of human activity). Place and landscape influence identity and behavior.
Environmental Sustainability: Environmental determinism vs. possibilism. Different approaches to human-environment interaction.
Environmental determinism: Environment restricts society/culture. Outdated but historically influential.
Environmental possibilism: Society shapes the environment to suit needs. Acknowledges human agency and adaptation.
Scale and Scale of Analysis:
Scale of analysis: How data is organized (national vs. local). Influences patterns and conclusions.
Scale: Amount of Earth's surface viewed. Affects the level of detail.
Small scale: Map of the world (less detail, more generalization). Shows broad patterns and relationships.
Large scale: County map (more detail, less area). Shows specific features and local variations.
Regions: Functional/nodal, perceptual/vernacular, formal/uniform. Different ways to group and understand areas.
Functional/nodal: Organized around a node (e.g., airport, pizza delivery). Defined by interactions and flows.
Perceptual/vernacular: Based on beliefs/attitudes (e.g., The Middle East). Subjective and vary among individuals.
Formal/uniform: Defined by common attributes (e.g., state boundaries). Objective and measurable criteria.
Unit 2: Population and Migration
Population Distribution: People live where opportunities exist (economic, social, political, environmental). Uneven distribution across the globe.
Urban areas: More economic/social opportunities. Higher population densities.
Rural areas: Fewer opportunities but quieter lifestyle, more land. Lower population densities.
Population Density: Arithmetic, physiological, agricultural. Different ways to measure population concentration.
Arithmetic Density: . Measures overall population distribution.
Physiological Density: . Measures pressure on agricultural land.
Agricultural Density: . Indicates efficiency of agricultural practices.
Population Vocabulary: CBR (Crude Birth Rate), CDR (Crude Death Rate), NIR (Natural Increase Rate), growth rate, doubling time, dependency ratios. Important demographic indicators.
Population Pyramids: Interpret based on shape (large base = early stage, top-heavy = later stage). Visual representation of age and sex structure.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM):
Stage 1: Low growth (high CBR & CDR). Pre-industrial societies.
Stage 2: High growth (CDR drops due to Industrial/Medical Revolution). Rapid population increase.
Stage 3: Moderate growth (CBR declines with urbanization). Transition to lower birth rates.
Stage 4: Low/Zero Population Growth (ZPG, CBR = CDR). Stable or declining populations.
Stage 5 (Debated): Population decline (CDR > CBR). Aging populations.
Epidemiologic Transition Model: Follows DTM, looks at causes of death in each stage. Shift from infectious to chronic diseases.
Population Policies: Pro-natalism (encourage births) vs. anti-natalism (restrict births). Government interventions to influence population size.
Malthus and Neo-Malthusians: Malthus predicted a Malthusian catastrophe (population grows exponentially, food arithmetically). Concerns about resource scarcity.
Neo-Malthusians: Malthus was right but limited; consider all resources, not just food. Broadened perspective on resource limitations.
Migration: Push and pull factors (economic reasons are primary). Reasons for movement.
Forced migration: Due to threats to life/safety. Involuntary displacement.
Voluntary migration: Migrant chooses freely. Based on personal choice and opportunities.
Ravenstein's Laws of Migration: Migration leads to counter-migration. Patterns and trends in migration flows.
Migration leads to diffusion, acculturation, assimilation, cultural resistance. Cultural consequences of migration.
Unit 3: Culture
Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism: Promotes cultural relativism (viewing culture through its own perspective) over ethnocentrism (judging based on own norms). Fosters understanding and tolerance.
Culture: Shared practices, beliefs, attitudes, customs, technologies, food. Dynamic and complex system.
Cultural Landscape: Land use patterns, agriculture, religion, language, architecture. Visible expression of culture.
Cultural Forces: Centripetal (unite) and centrifugal (divide) forces. Influence cohesion and fragmentation.
Diffusion: Relocation vs. expansion (hierarchical, contagious, stimulus). Spread of cultural traits.
Colonialism/imperialism spread English (lingua franca), religion (Christianity, Islam). Historical impact on cultural patterns.
Modern diffusion: Urbanization, globalization, internet. Contemporary forces shaping culture.
Space-time compression: Reduces impact of distance decay. Accelerates cultural exchange.
Cultural Changes: Acculturation, assimilation, syncretism, multiculturalism, cultural resistance. Adaptation and interaction of cultures.
Religion: Universalizing (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism) vs. ethnic (Judaism, Hinduism). Different types of religious spread and impact.
Impact on cultural landscape, diffusion patterns. Influence on architecture, diet, and social norms.
Language: Language families, diffusion, dialects. Key element of cultural identity.
Unit 4: Political Organization of Space
Nations vs. States: Nation (shared culture/history) vs. state (permanent population, government, recognition). Two fundamental concepts in political geography.
Nation-State: Homogeneous state (one nation). Idealized form of political organization.
Multinational State: Multiple nations coexist. Complex and often unstable.
Multistate Nation: Nation exists in multiple states (e.g., Korean nation). Transnational identity.
Stateless Nation: Nation without a state (e.g., Kurdish nation). Seeks self-determination.
Self-Determination: Nation's right to govern itself. Basis for many political movements.
Colonialism and Imperialism: Boundaries, diffusion, power expression. Historical forces shaping political landscapes.
Neocolonialism: Economic/political influence without direct control. Contemporary form of dominance.
Political Boundaries: Relic, antecedent, subsequent, consequent, superimposed, geometric. Different types of boundary formation.
Law of the Sea: Territorial waters (12 nautical miles), contiguous zone (24 miles), Exclusive Economic Zone (200 miles). Maritime boundaries and rights.
Gerrymandering: Redistricting voting districts for political advantage. Manipulation of electoral boundaries.
Unitary vs. Federal States: Unitary (centralized power) vs. federal (shared power). Different forms of government structure.
Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces: Forces that unite vs. divide a state. Influence stability and cohesion.
Devolution: Transfer of power from national to regional government. Decentralization of authority.
State Sovereignty: Challenged by devolution, technology, foreign interference, supernational organizations. Erosion of state control.
Supernational organizations: (e.g. EU, NATO, UN) States give up some sovereign control, benefit to solve complex global issues, participate in trade agreements, military alliances. International cooperation and governance.
Unit 5: Agriculture
Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture: Intensive (near population, high labor/capital) vs. extensive (farther, more land). Different approaches to agricultural production.
Intensive Examples: Plantation Farming, Mixed Crop and Livestock, Market Gardening. High inputs and yields.
Extensive Examples: Shifting Cultivation, Nomadic Herding, Ranching. Lower inputs and yields.
Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture: Subsistence (feed family/community) vs. commercial (generate profit). Different economic orientations.
Settlement Patterns: Clustered, dispersed, linear. Spatial arrangement of agricultural communities.
Survey Methods: Meets and bounds, long lots, township and range. Systems for land division and ownership.
Agricultural Hearths: Fertile Crescent, Indus Valley River. Centers of agricultural innovation.
Agricultural Revolutions: First (Neolithic), Second (with Industrial Revolution), Green Revolution (GMOs). Transformative periods in agricultural history.
Agricultural Practices: Monocropping, monoculture. Specialization in crop production.
Economy of Scale: Large farms produce crops at cheaper rates due to technology. Favors large multinational corporations. Advantages of large-scale production.
Value-Added Specialty Crop: Crops that gain in value as production occurs. Enhancing profitability through processing and marketing.
Ethical/Health/Environmental Concerns: Debates over GMOs, chemical fertilizers. Controversies in modern agriculture.
Counter Movements: Organic farming, local food movements, urban farming. Alternatives to conventional agriculture.
Women in Agriculture: Larger percentage of subsistence farmers in developing countries. Lower wages, less opportunities in society, more likely to be victims of discrimination. Gender disparities in agriculture.
Bid Rent Theory: Relationship between land prices and urban areas. Land value decreases with distance from the city center.
Von Thünen Model: Spatial layout of agriculture (market at center). Explains the location of agricultural activities around a market.
Ring 1: Dairy and horticulture. Intensive and perishable goods.
Ring 2: Forest. Fuel and building materials.
Ring 3: Grain and field crops. Less perishable and extensive crops.
Ring 4: Livestock. Ranching and animal grazing.
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use
Site and Situation Factors: Site (unique place features) vs. situation (connections between places). Influences urban development.
Settlements and Cities: Location, operation, connections. Key aspects of urban areas.
World Cities: Cultural trends diffuse through large urban areas. Centers of global influence.
Gravity Model: Predicts interaction between places (larger settlements attract more). Measures the attraction between cities.
Central Place Theory: Larger settlements have a larger range (pull people in). Explains the distribution of urban areas.
Urban Hierarchy: Spatial association between cities, towns, villages, hamlets. Ranking of settlements based on size and function.
Primate City vs. Rank-Size Rule: Primate city (largest city is double the size of the second largest) vs. rank-size rule (population is proportional to rank). Different patterns of urban distribution.
Urban Models: Burgess Concentric Zone, Hoyt Sector, Harris and Allman Multiple Nuclei, Galactic (Periphery). Explaining the spatial structure of cities.
Latin American City Model: CBD to wealthy shopping district with a spine that connects them. Colonial influence and socio-economic disparities shape the model.
Sub-Saharan African City Model: 3 CBD's with informal settlements located around the urban area. Colonial, traditional, and market sectors.
Southeast Asian City Model: Based around a port with a government zone that overlooks trade. Focus on trade and port activities.
Settlements: Squatter settlements: Low-income neighborhoods/areas that people are living in without legal claim to the land. Informal and often lack basic services.
Density Gradient: Vertical building near CBD, single-family homes in suburbs (relate back to Bid-Rent). Population density decreases with distance from the CBD.
Infrastructure: Public transportation, schools, healthcare to attract residents. Essential for urban growth and quality of life.
Sustainable Cities: Smart growth, urban growth boundaries, new urbanism, green belts. Approaches to environmentally friendly urban development.
Urban Policy Controversies: Segregation, unequal economic development, loss of historical neighborhoods. Challenges in urban planning and management.
Discriminatory Policies: Redlining, blockbusting. Historical practices that created and reinforced segregation.
Gentrification: Raises property values, pushes out low-income residents. Displacement and socio-economic transformation.
Government Layers: Federal, regional, state, local, city, counties. Different levels of governance in urban areas.
Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development
Globalization: Drastic changes related to the production of foods, good, and services due to the industrial revolution. Increased interconnectedness and interdependence.
Formal vs. Informal Economy: Formal (regulated) vs. informal (under the table). Different economic sectors.
Economic Sectors: Primary (natural resources), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services).
broken down further by jobs that are service based but collecting and gathering information and then to executives and government and governmental jobs.
International Division of Labor: Core countries outsource primary/secondary jobs to semi-periphery/periphery. Global distribution of production processes.
Offshoring: Moving jobs from home country to another country. Shifts in employment patterns.
Manufacturing Zones: Multinational corporations relocate production in developing countries to make it economically advantageous because of the cheaper prices.
Post-Fordist Production: Just-in-time delivery, agglomeration, growth poles. Flexible and efficient production systems.
Neoliberal Policies: Free trade agreements (NAFTA), WTO, IMF. Promote free markets and reduced government intervention.
Isolationist Policy: resist globalization and try to implement isolationist policies. Countries that utilize tariffs, which are the taxes on imports, try to motivate companies to move back to their country.
Comparative Advantage: Specialize in a good/service and trade. Basis for international trade.
Growth Indicators: GDP (temperature check), GNP (production of citizens), GNI (standard of living). Measures of economic performance.
Social Issues: Women in the economy (subsistence agriculture, informal economy, low wages). Gender disparities in economic opportunities.
Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: Traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, age of mass consumption.
Traditional Society, is when jobs are Centered around subsistence agriculture and majority work here is in the primary sector, then we see.
society now starts to see demand from outside states for raw materials inside the state, which creates more jobs in the secondary sector, but also still the majority of jobs in society are still
in that primary sector from there, we move into the third stage Third stages When we're starting to see urbanization occur at a faster rate, and more and more job opportunities are starting to open up for citizens in
the secondary sector and then we go into the drive to maturity stage where we start to see more specialization and global trade occur where
The economy now also starts to become more specialized and we start to see the state become more independent from their global trade Partners
Lastly, we have the age of mass consumption where Society now has many jobs that are in the tertiary sector and society overall is more developed. we're also starting to see society produce different products that