GCSE Modern World History EXAM PAGES
Page 1:
Tsarist Russia (1900-1917)
Russia was a vast but backward country in 1905
Ruled by a Tsar with complete power
The USSR (1928-1941)
Stalin emerges as Lenin's successor
Stalin tries to change Soviet industry and agriculture
The new Tsar
Nicholas II crowned Tsar of Russia in 1894
Initially celebrated, but later removed from power and imprisoned
Crowds flocked to see the "Little Father of Russia"
Nicholas II and his family held under armed guard in Ekaterinburg
Commentators predicted collapse before 1917
Page 2:
Profile of Tsar Nicholas II
Born in 1868, crowned as Tsar in 1896
Married to Alexandra of Hesse, both committed to autocratic rule
Rejected requests for reform, focused on the Far East
Ineffective as a ruler, unaware of changes in Russia
Lost control of Russia and abdicated in 1917
Executed by Bolsheviks in 1918 during the Russian Civil War
The Tsar's empire
Russia was a vast empire with diverse nationalities
Only 40% of subjects spoke Russian as their first language
Some groups loyal to the Tsar, others hated Russian rule
Jews faced racial prejudice and pogroms sponsored by the government
Population of the Russian Empire (1897)
Census data on the population of different nationalities
Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Byelorussians, Jews, etc.
Map of Russia and its population in 1900
Shows the vastness of the Russian Empire and its diverse population
Page 3: Peasants' Living Conditions
Around 80% of Russia's population were peasants who lived in communes
Some prosperous peasant farmers called kulaks
Living and working conditions for most peasants were dreadful
Famine and starvation were common
Life expectancy of a peasant farmer was only 40 years of age
Land was in very short supply due to rapid population growth
Russian peasants were still using ancient farming techniques
Peasants divided the land into large fields, each family allotted a strip of land
Peasant councils called mir organized the subdivision of fields
Very few peasants could read or write
Many peasants were loyal to the Tsar due to religious beliefs
Some peasants supported the opposition, the Social Revolutionaries, due to discontent over land ownership by the aristocracy, the Church, and the Tsar
Page 3: Aristocracy's Living Conditions
The aristocracy owned about 25% of the land
They had vast estates, town and country houses, and elegant lifestyles
They were a key part of the Tsar's government and often acted as local officials
Most were loyal to the Tsar and wanted to maintain the existing Russian society
Some aristocrats lived in cities rather than on their estates
Fear of peasant uprising and land seizure was a major concern for the aristocracy
Page 4: Workers in the Town
Urban workers made up about 4% of the population in 1900
Concentrations of workers in St Petersburg and Moscow
Peasants arrived in cities looking for a new way of life or extra cash before returning for the harvest
Living conditions for urban workers were wretched
Overcrowding, terrible food, disease, and alcoholism
Working conditions were atrocious
No government regulations on child labor, hours, safety, or education
Trade unions were illegal
Low pay, long working hours, unguarded machinery, and brutal discipline
Working in factories was no better than working on the land for peasants
Page 4: Middle Classes
Industrialization led to the emergence of a new class in Russia, the capitalists
Capitalists were landowners, industrialists, bankers, traders, and businessmen
Russia's middle class expanded, particularly in the towns
Capitalists were concerned about managing the economy and controlling their workforce
Clashes between workers and capitalists played an important role in Russia's history up to 1917
Page 5:
Tsar Nicholas II's coronation speech in 1894
Voices in some zemstva expressing dreams of zemstva members participating in internal government affairs
Tsar upholds the principle of autocracy firmly and unflinchingly
Count Witte, Russian Prime Minister in 1906
Talks with Count Witte for two hours
Count Witte wishes him luck, but he finds a written order for dismissal on his desk
Questions:
Draw up a chart summarizing the Tsarist system of government.
Analyze Sources 7 and 8: a) Loyalty of the Tsar's ministers b) Leadership qualities of the Tsar
Describe and explain two ways in which Nicholas II weakened Russia's government.
Analyze Source 9: a) Interpret the contents as evidence of the strength of the Tsar's regime or evidence of its weakness b) Explain the answer and refer to the information in the text
The Tsar and his government:
Russia ruled by an autocracy
Tsar has absolute power and believes God placed him in that position
Russian Church supports this view
Tsar can appoint or dismiss ministers and make decisions without consulting others
Nicholas II committed to the idea of autocracy and obsessed with the Romanov family's past
Good qualities: loyalty to family, willingness to work hard, attention to detail
Not an able, forceful, and imaginative monarch like his predecessors
Avoids making important decisions and does not delegate tasks
Gets involved in the smallest details of government
Poor management of officials
Feels threatened by talented ministers and dismisses them
Refuses to chair the Council of Ministers and prefers one-to-one meetings
Encourages rivalry between ministers, causing chaos and lack of cooperation
Appoints incompetent or corrupt family members and friends to important positions
Control:
Tsar's regime strong in some ways
Resistance limited at the local level
Peasants' lives controlled by the mir, overruled by land captains
Zemstva help control Russia, dominated by landlords and professionals
Local governors appointed by the Tsar from the aristocracy ranks
Some areas function as a police state, controlled by local governors
Special emergency laws allow local governors to:
Order police to arrest suspected opponents
Ban individuals from serving in government organizations
Impose heavy fines on suspects
Introduce censorship of books, leaflets, or newspapers
Local governors control the police, with a special force focusing on political opponents
Okhrana, the Tsar's secret police
Army, particularly the loyal and terrifying Cossack regiments, used in case of rebellion
Source 9:
A third of Russia lives under emergency legislation
Regular police and secret police numbers continually growing
Prisons overcrowded with convicts and political prisoners
Religious persecutions of Jews are cruel
Soldiers employed in cities and industrial centers with live ammunition against the people
Autocracy is an outdated form of government that doesn't suit the needs of the Russian people
Page 6:
Marxist theory
Karl Marx believed in class struggle and revolution
Middle classes would take control from the monarchy and aristocracy
Workers (proletariat) would overthrow the middle classes
Communist Party would rule temporarily, then no need for government
Peaceful, Communist society
Activity: Analyzing Source 10
Source 10 is a drawing by opponents of the Tsar's regime
Discuss if it accurately represents Russian society
Consider how its claims are supported or not supported by information and sources in the text
Identify aspects of life in Russia not covered by the drawing
Opposition to the Tsar
Three groups opposed the Tsarist government
Middle-class liberals or "Cadets" wanted greater democracy
Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) believed in revolution and redistribution of land
Social Democratic Party followed Karl Marx's ideas, split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
Opposition parties were illegal, leading members were executed or sent to Siberia
Wave of strikes, demonstrations, and protests in 1903
Page 7:
Analyzing Source 11
Make two lists: complaints and demands of the petitioners
Discuss if the demands are revolutionary
Sum up the attitude of the petitioners to the Tsar in two words
Comparing Sources 12-14
Compare scenes of Bloody Sunday in these sources
Explain the differences in their presentation
The 1905 revolution
Government's attempts to deal with problems failed
Relaxation of censorship led to anti-government publications
Attempt to set up government-approved trade unions resulted in strikes
Tsar's war against Japan ended in humiliating defeats
Bloody Sunday
Crowd of 200,000 protesters led by Father Gapon came to the Winter Palace
Protesters carried pictures of the Tsar to show respect
Tsar was not present, soldiers and Cossacks met the protesters
Soldiers opened fire and Cossacks charged, leading to loss of respect for the Tsar
Note: The note includes all the main ideas from the transcript, organized into sections with appropriate headers. Supporting details are provided in sub-bullets.
Page 8:
A cold and frosty day with a lot of activity and reports
Fredericks came for lunch
Went for a long walk
All factories and workshops in St Petersburg have been on strike since yesterday
Troops have been brought in to strengthen the garrison
Workers have been calm so far
Socialist priest Capon is leading the workers
Sunday 22 January:
Serious disorders in St Petersburg as workers wanted to come up to the Winter Palace
Troops had to open fire in several places, resulting in many killed and wounded
Mama arrived from town and went straight to church
Had lunch with everyone else
Went for a walk with Misba
Mama stayed overnight
Source 16:
Tsar appeared out of touch with the seriousness of the situation
Possibility of losing control of Russia for the next ten months
Uncle of the Tsar assassinated in Moscow
Striking workers put barricades in the streets
Sailors aboard the battleship Potemkin mutinied
General strike paralyzed Russian industry
Revolutionaries, including Lenin and Trotsky, returned from exile to join the revolution
Workers' councils formed in towns, peasants took over lands in the countryside
How did the Tsar survive?
Tsar took some time to respond
Offered the people a Duma, right to free speech, and right to form political parties in October Manifesto
Announced further concessions and financial help for peasants in November
Divided his opponents, with middle-class liberals being delighted and revolutionary groups being suspicious
Made peace with Japan and brought best troops back to western Russia to crush the revolt
Ruthlessly put down rebellions in the countryside
Leaders of St Petersburg and Moscow soviets arrested and exiled to Siberia
Serious fighting in the streets of Moscow, but strikers were no match for the army
Revolution completely crushed by March 1906
Tsar introduced Fundamental Laws in May 1906, which limited the powers of the Duma
FOCUS TASK: How the Tsar crushed the revolution
Steps taken by the Tsar in 1905 to crush the revolution
Each step helped him maintain control
FOCUS TASK: How the Tsar kept control
Longer-term measures taken by the Tsar to keep control after the revolution
Each measure helped him maintain control
Page 9:
Source 1 shows a graph depicting agricultural and industrial production from 1890-1913.
The graph shows that coal and oil production increased over time.
Questions about the Tsar and the people:
Source 18 suggests that the Tsar and his court had a haughty and disdainful attitude towards the idea of the 'people' being more involved in running the country.
Source 19 suggests that working people had a waning faith in the Tsar's regime.
Strikes and strikers:
Source 9 provides data on strikes and strikers from 1905-1914.
The figures were compiled by the Tsar's Ministry of Trade and Industry.
The number of strikes and strikers varied each year, with a peak in 1906.
The number of strikers reached its highest point in 1913.
The mood of the people:
Source 20 quotes Guchkov, a Russian conservative in the Duma, stating that the Russian people were revolutionized by the actions of the government and that faith in the government was steadily waning.
Even staunch supporters of the Tsar were beginning to want change by 1913.
The troubled years, 1905-1914:
The Tsar survived the 1905 revolution but faced the possibility of another revolution.
The Duma deputies hoped to help steer Russia on a new course but were disappointed when the Tsar continued to rule without taking them seriously.
The first and second Dumas were critical of the Tsar and lasted less than a year before being sent home.
The third Duma, which lasted until 1912, was less critical of the Tsar but became critical of his ministers and policies by 1912.
However, the Duma had no power to change the Tsar's policies, and criticism alone was not a serious threat to the regime.
The first session of the Duma:
Source 18 describes the first session of the Duma in April 1906.
The court dignitaries looked haughtily at the "people of the street" who had joined the revolution.
The Tsar delivered a short and insincere speech, promising to uphold the principles of autocracy.
The Tsar's mother, the Dowager Empress, was shocked to see so many commoners inside the palace.
Stolypin's policies:
In 1906, the Tsar appointed Peter Stolypin as Prime Minister.
Stolypin used a "carrot and stick" approach to address the problems in Russia.
The "stick" involved suppressing strikers, protesters, and revolutionaries, resulting in exile and execution.
The "carrot" involved allowing wealthier peasants to opt out of communes and buy land, leading to the creation of larger and more efficient farms.
Stolypin also tried to boost Russia's industries, resulting in economic growth between 1908 and 1911.
However, living and working conditions for urban workers remained poor, with low wages and high costs of food and housing.
Page 10: Stolypin's achievements and failings
Stolypin's achievements:
Implemented reforms for basic education and regulations to protect factory workers
Stolypin's failings:
Assasinated in 1911
Blocked by the Tsar from implementing some of his plans
Seen as a threat to traditional Russian society by the landlords and members of the court
FOCUS TASK: How well was Russia governed in 1914?
Profits from industry going to capitalists or being paid back to banks in France
Relations between the Tsar and his people worsened
Downturn in the economy in 1912 led to unemployment and hunger
Limited enthusiasm for the celebrations of the Romanovs' rule in 1913
Source 2: Characteristics of a good government and assessment of the Tsarist government
Characteristics of a good government:
Trying to improve the lives of all its people
Building up agriculture and industry
Listening to and responding to its population
Running the country efficiently
Defending the country from enemies
Assessment of the Tsarist government up to 1914
List of successes and failures of the Tsarist government up to 1914
Assessment options for the government in 1913: in crisis, strong with some serious weaknesses, secure with only minor weaknesses
Source 22: Russian cartoon depicting Rasputin's influence on the Tsar and Tsarina
Cartoon suggests that Rasputin is an evil influence on the Tsar and Tsarina
Rasputin's influence and the government's measures
Rasputin was seen as a strange and dangerous figure
Rasputin appeared to have control over the Tsar's son's illness through hypnosis
Rasputin gave advice on how to run the country to the Tsar and Tsarina
Rasputin was seen as disreputable and suspicious by the people in Russia
The Tsar's opponents used Rasputin as a sign of the Tsar's weakness and unfitness to rule
The Tsar's supporters were concerned about the Tsar's preference for loyal but unimaginative ministers
The government tried measures like discrimination and violence against minorities, but it had little effect
Discontent grew, especially among the industrial working class in the cities
Strikes were on the rise, including the Lena gold field strike where troops opened fire on striking miners
The army and police dealt with these problems, making the government seem firmly in control
Page 11:
Task: Present an overview of how the First World War affected four different groups in Russian society
Groups: army, workers, middle classes, aristocracy
Read pages 108-110 to find out about the impact of the war on each group
Write a paragraph or series of notes summarizing the impact of war on each group
Organize work as a presentation using OHT acetates or computer presentation software
Research pictures to support the presentation
Was the Tsar's decision to take command of the army evidence that he was out of touch with the situation?
Explain your answer
Why were the Bolsheviks successful at gaining recruits in the army?
War and revolution
In August 1914, Russia entered the First World War
Tsar seemed popular and there was a display of patriotism
Workers, peasants, and aristocrats joined in the patriotic enthusiasm
Anti-government strikes and demonstrations were abandoned
Tsar began to lose support as the war continued
The army
Russian army was a huge army of conscripts
Soldiers were initially enthusiastic, but many felt they were fighting to defend their country against the Germans rather than showing loyalty to the Tsar
Russian soldiers fought bravely but stood little chance against the German army
Badly led and treated appallingly by aristocrat officers
Poorly supported by industries at home, lacking rifles, ammunition, artillery, and shells
Tsar took personal command of the armed forces in September 1915, but it made little difference to the war
Defeats and huge losses continued, leading to deep discontent in the army
Many soldiers were supporters of the Bolshevik Party
Peasants, workers, and ethnic minorities
Strain of war alienated peasants and workers
Huge casualty figures took their toll
Food production remained high until 1916, but government couldn't always pay for the food produced
Government planned to take food by force but abandoned the idea to avoid revolt
Revolt in central Asian Russia when Tsar tried to conscript Muslims into the army, brutally suppressed
Discontent in cities by 1916
War contracts created extra industrial jobs, but workers received little extra wages
Overcrowding, fuel shortages, and food shortages worsened
Rail network couldn't cope with needs of army, industry, and city populations
Note: The transcript continues beyond page 11, but the given information is sufficient for the note.
Page 12:
Average worker's wage in 1917 was 5 roubles a day
In 1914, this would buy 2 bags of flour, 5 bags of potatoes, and 5 kilograms of meat
In 1917, this would buy 3/4 of a bag of flour, 1/4 of a bag of potatoes, and 0.8 kilograms of meat
Number of risings by peasants and strikes by factory workers increased from 1914 to 1917
Margot Tracey's description of feelings towards the Tsar in 1917:
Everybody was fed up with the Tsar because they felt he was weak
There was great rejoicing when he abdicated
People thought things would be much better without him
Adviser to the Tsar in 1916:
Concerns for the middle classes:
Many middle-class activists in the zemstva were unhappy with the Tsar
Reports such as Source 23 appalled them
They set up their own medical organizations and joined war committees
These organizations were more effective than government agencies
Industrialists complained about a shortage of raw materials and fuel
Concerns for the aristocracy:
Council of the United Nobility called for the Tsar to step down
Junior officers in the army suffered devastating losses in the war
Conscription of 13 million peasants threatened aristocrats' livelihoods
Leading aristocrats were appalled by the influence of Rasputin over the government
Rumors of an affair between the Tsar's wife and Rasputin
SOURCE 29:
M Rodzianko's report to the Tsar about Rasputin's influence
Advised the Tsar that Rasputin's presence undermines confidence in the Supreme Power
Mentioned the evil effect on the fate of the dynasty and the hearts of the people
Rasputin was initially ordered to be sent to Tobolsk but the order was later canceled at the demand of the Empress
The March revolution:
Strikes broke out all over Russia in January 1917
Strikes spread in February, supported by members of the army
Soldiers had more in common with the strikers than their officers
On March 7, workers at the Putilov steelworks in Petrograd went on strike
Thousands of women and other discontented workers joined the strike on International Women's Day
Number of striking workers rose to 250,000 from March 7 to 10
Industly came to a standstill
The Duma set up a Provisional Committee to take over the government, but the Tsar ordered them to disband
The army refused to put down the revolt by force
Soldiers even shot their own officers and joined the demonstrators
Duma leaders reluctantly accepted taking over the government
Petrograd Soviet was set up again, taking control of food supplies and undermining the authority of officers
Tsar issued a statement on March 15 that he was abdicating
Initial plan for his brother Michael to take over, but Michael refused
Page 13:
Two main views on the importance of war in the collapse of the Tsarist regime:
View 1: The Tsar's regime was stable before the war, but the difficulties of war destroyed the progress towards a modern state.
The war was severe and brought destruction to Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.
View 2: The regime in Russia was cursed with a weak Tsar, a backward economy, and a class of aristocrats unwilling to share power and privileges with the masses.
The war did not cause the revolution, but it may have accelerated the process.
Class activity: Divide into two groups to find evidence and arguments supporting each view. Can compare notes in a class discussion or organize a formal debate. Can also compare views with students in other schools using email conferencing.
Source 30:
Telegram from General Alekseyev, February 1917, stating that a company of the Pavlovsky Regiment's reserve battalion refused to fire on people and rebels have seized important buildings in the city. Troops have either laid down their arms, joined the rebels, or become neutral.
Page 14:
Provisional Government's policies on the war and land
Should not break ties with the allies
Separate peace would be disastrous for the Russian revolution and international democracy
Land question should be solved by the Constituent Assembly
The Provisional Government's challenges and composition
Faced urgent decisions on war, land distribution, and food supply
Mixed group with experienced politicians and inexperienced revolutionaries
Promised to continue the war and urged peasants to wait for elections before taking land
The role of the Petrograd Soviet and the growing support for the Bolsheviks
Workers paid attention to the Petrograd Soviet
Soviet and Provisional Government worked together initially
Lenin returned to Russia and presented the Bolshevik program in the April Theses
Bolshevik slogans of "Peace, Land, and Bread" and "All power to the soviets" gained support
Page 15:
The collapse of the Provisional Government's authority
War effort failing, soldiers deserting in thousands
Peasants ignored government orders and took control of the countryside
Soldiers did not want to miss out on land distribution
The German offensive and the changing attitude of the troops
German offensive turning into a catastrophe
Authority and obedience no longer exist among the troops
Deserters roam freely without fear of punishment
The power dynamics between the Provisional Government and the Soviet
Provisional Government lacks real power
Soviet holds important elements of actual power, such as troops and transportation
The July Days and Kerensky's difficult situation
Bolshevik-led protests against the war turn into a rebellion
Support for the rebellion falls when evidence of German assistance to Lenin is revealed
Kerensky uses troops to crush the rebellion and takes over the government
Lack of gratitude towards the Provisional Government
Ordinary people have little reason to be grateful to the government
Page 16:
Chaotic conditions in Russia after the Revolution
Cabs and horse-drawn carriages disappearing
Street-car service becoming erratic
Railway stations filled with tramps and deserting soldiers
Police force vanished, leading to hold-ups and robberies
Food scarcity and discontent among the people
Long queues for food in the rain
Poorly clad people standing on the streets for days
Bitter discontent among the Russian crowd
Kornilov's march towards Moscow and Kerensky's dilemma
Kornilov intended to get rid of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government
Kerensky turned to the Bolshevik opponents for support
Bolsheviks formed the Red Guards and Kornilov's plans collapsed
Kerensky's government losing support and the rise of the Bolsheviks
Government's failure in the war and stopping peasants from taking over land
Loss of support from the army, urban workers, and peasants
Bolsheviks promising bread, peace, and land
Bolshevik majorities in Petrograd, Moscow, and other major towns and cities
Page 17:
Proclamation of the Petrograd Soviet after the Provisional Government's overthrow
Little resistance faced by the Bolsheviks when storming the Winter Palace
Lenin's conviction and the swift action of the Bolsheviks
Red Guards led by Leon Trotsky taking control of important targets
Storming of the Winter Palace and arrest of the ministers of the Provisional Government
Kerensky's failed attempt to rally loyal troops and his subsequent exile
Lenin, Trotsky, and the Bolshevik Revolution:
Bolshevik support increasing throughout 1917
Lenin's conviction and persuasion of other Bolsheviks
Red Guards led by Trotsky taking control of important targets
Bolsheviks in control of most of Petrograd
Storming of the Winter Palace and arrest of the ministers of the Provisional Government
Kerensky's failed attempt to rally loyal troops and subsequent exile
Page 18:
PROFILE: Vladimir Ilich Lenin
Born in 1870 into a respectable Russian family
Brother hanged in 1887 for plotting against the Tsar
Graduated from St Petersburg University after being thrown out of Kazan University for his political beliefs
Exiled to Siberia from 1897-1900
From 1900-1905 lived in various countries writing the revolutionary newspaper Iskra ('The Spark')
Took part in the 1905 revolution but was forced to flee
Returned to Russia after the first revolution in 1917
Led the Bolsheviks to power in November 1917
Page 19:
PROFILE: Leon Trotsky
Born in 1879 into a respectable and prosperous Jewish farming family
Exceptionally bright at school and brilliant at university
Politically active - arrested in 1900 and deported to Siberia
Escaped to London in 1902 and met Lenin there
Joined the Social Democratic Party, but supported the Menshevik wing rather than the Bolsheviks
Played an important role in organizing strikes in the 1905 revolution - imprisoned for his activities
Escaped in 1907 and became a Bolshevik activist in the years before the First World War
Published two Bolshevik newspapers, including Pravda
In 1917 he returned to Russia and played a key role in the Bolshevik Revolution
In 1918 he became the Commissar for War and led the Bolsheviks to victory in the Civil War
Page 20: Lenin's Russia
Bolshevik decrees, 1917:
8 November:
Land belonging to Tsar, Church, and nobles handed over to peasants.
Russia asked for peace with Germany.
12 November:
Working day limited to 8 hours; 48-hour week; rules made about overtime and holidays.
14 November:
Workers to be insured against illness or accident.
1 December:
All non-Bolshevik newspapers banned.
11 December:
The opposition Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) banned; its leaders arrested.
20 December:
Cheka (secret police) set up to deal with 'spies and counter-revolutionaries'.
27 December:
Factories put under control of workers' committees.
Banks put under Bolshevik government control.
31 December:
Marriages could take place without a priest if desired.
Divorce made easier.
Lenin in power
Lenin and the Bolsheviks promised bread, peace, and land to the people.
Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) was set up by Lenin.
First decree issued on 8 November, asking for peace with Germany.
Numerous decrees followed to strengthen Bolsheviks' hold on power.
Peasants were given lands belonging to the Tsar and the Church.
Factories and industries were put into the hands of the workers.
Bolsheviks were given power to deal ruthlessly with opponents.
The Bolshevik dictatorship
Lenin promised free elections to the new Constituent Assembly.
Bolsheviks did not gain a majority in the elections.
Rivals, the peasant-based Socialist Revolutionaries, were the biggest party.
Lenin sent the Red Guards to close down the Assembly.
Assembly was forgotten and the Congress of Soviets was used to pass laws.
Russia's democratic experiment lasted less than 24 hours.
Tsarist Russia Important info
Tsarist Russia was ruled by a series of autocratic tsars.
The economy was primarily agrarian, with serfdom as the dominant labor system.
The Russian Empire expanded through conquest and colonization.
The Orthodox Church played a significant role in society and politics.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the end of the tsarist regime.
Tsar Nicholas II was the last tsar of Russia.
The Russo-Japanese War and World War I weakened the tsarist government.
The Decembrist Revolt and the 1905 Revolution were significant challenges to tsarist rule.
Industrialization and urbanization increased during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The tsarist regime faced opposition from various political groups, including socialists and liberals.