Chapter 11: Reaction, Reform, and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Politics, 11815–1850

political and cultural impact of the unfinished revolutions

conservatives, led by metternich, reasserted control to stop liberal and democratic reforms in europe
new ideologies (liberalism, nationalism, socialism) challenged conservative authority
romanticism and revolutionary movements (greece, britain, france) inspired 1848 revolutions and lasting political change

Lesson 11.1: How was peace restored and maintained after the Napoleonic Wars?

congress of vienna and post-napoleonic order

quadruple alliance (russia, prussia, austria, britain) sought to control france after napoleon
congress of vienna (1814) aimed to create lasting peace and prevent future wars
balance of power, territorial redrawing, and conservative restoration maintained ~50 years of european peace

The European Balance of Power

congress of vienna: A meeting of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain), restoration France, and smaller European states to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon’s France in 1814

congress of vienna negotiations and the balance of power

rare face-to-face summit of monarchs and ministers combined formal diplomacy with social events, shaping public opinion and early mass-media coverage
france treated leniently to avoid resentment: bourbon monarchy restored, 1792 borders returned, no reparations, while defensive measures limited future aggression
territorial rearrangements balanced power: netherlands created, german confederation formed, land swaps among austria, prussia, russia, britain, and congress system established to maintain long-term european peace

Metternich and Conservatism

metternich’s political ideology and career

conservative, reactionary defense of monarchy and aristocracy
influenced by french revolution and napoleonic wars
managed crises of revolutionary age

metternich’s view on liberalism and governance

blamed liberal middle-class revolutions for war and disorder
supported strong, authoritarian monarchy to control society
upheld organized religion as moral foundation of state

metternich’s defense of elite privileges

aristocracy and church central to society
liberalism linked to nationalism seen as threat to central europe
conservatives valued tradition as foundation of human society

diversity of the austrian empire

included austria, hungary, bohemia, lombardy-venetia
spoke 11+ languages, many ethnic groups
politically dominant groups were germans and hungarians

strengths and weaknesses of the austrian empire

large population and territory gave economic and military power
ethnic diversity threatened political unity
needed to oppose liberalism and nationalism to stay intact

alliances with russia and ottoman empire

multinational absolutist empires supporting conservatism
ruling elites from dominant ethnic groups (russian orthodox, ottoman turks)
both states preserved conservative order until crises in 1840s

Repressing the Revolutionary Spirit

Holy Alliance: An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe

Karlsbad decrees: Issued in 1819, these repressive regulations were designed to uphold Metternich’s conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas and suppress any liberal organizations

Austria, Prussia, and the German Confederation

German states remained independent with weak federal assembly
Karlsbad Decrees (1819) banned liberal organizations, censored universities and newspapers, used spies to suppress reformers

Metternich’s conservative policies beyond central Europe

limited reform in Spain and southern Italy
1820 revolutions briefly established constitutional monarchies
Troppau Conference: principle of active intervention to restore autocratic rule
Austrian army restored Ferdinand I in Naples; French army restored king in Spain

reaction in Russia

Decembrist Uprising (1825) by army officers inspired by liberal ideas
troops crushed protest; leaders executed or exiled
conservative regimes used censorship, military, secret police, imprisonment, and execution to suppress reform

Limits to Conservative Power and Revolution in South America
Metternich and European conservatives

called himself “chief Minister of Police in Europe”
system suppressed liberalism effectively in central Europe until 1848
could not prevent dynastic change in France (1830) or Belgian independence (1831)

South American revolutions

1810s: elites (Creoles) challenged Spanish Crown, inspired by Enlightenment ideals
Creoles: wealthy, 5% of population; resented peninsulares, small ruling Spanish elite
Majority population (enslaved Africans, Indigenous peoples, multiracial groups) at bottom of social hierarchy

Causes of revolt

Napoleonic Wars weakened Spain, inspired ideas of rights
Creoles hesitant due to fear of social upheaval or slave revolts
Revolts began from below (people of color); Creoles later took leadership

Revolutionary outcomes

Simón Bolívar: defeated Spanish in north, created short-lived Gran Colombia (1819–1830)
José de San Martín: secured independence in southern South America by 1825
Bolívar’s dream of federation failed; northern state fractured by 1830
By 1840, borders resembled modern Latin America

Political consequences

Liberal constitutions initially adopted but limited in practice
Most non-Creoles and women excluded from voting
Caudillos (strongmen) emerged, ruling by military strength, patronage, and populism
Revolutions showed potential of liberal ideals and limits of conservative control

Lesson 11.2: What new ideologies emerged to challenge conservative government?

rise of radical political ideologies after 1815

post 1815 thinkers adapted revolutionary ideas into new movements
rejection of conservatism and traditional social structures
french revolutionary ideals influenced lasting western political values

Liberalism and Middle Class

liberalism: The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom from arbitrary arrest

liberty and legal equality from american and french revolutions
support for representative government and individual freedoms
limited success and exclusion of many groups

laissez faire: A doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy

supported by industrial and commercial elites
favored free trade and no government interference
opposed by conservatives

adam smith and classical liberalism

promoted free markets over mercantilism
argued competition benefits society broadly
foundation of economic liberalism

liberalism aligned with upper class interests

property requirements limited voting rights
unions banned to protect free competition
workers women and middle classes excluded

republicanism: An expanded liberal ideology that endorsed universal democratic voting rights, at least for men, and radical equality for all

rise as a radical alternative

demanded universal male suffrage and equality
accepted violence and state action if needed
only partial alliance with liberals

The Growing Appeal of Nationalism

nationalism: The idea that each people had its own genius and specific identity that manifested itself especially in a common language and history, which often led to the desire for an independent political state

gained popularity after 1815
inspired by french revolution and napoleonic wars
emphasized shared language culture history territory

national unity as an early challenge

unity was mostly an ideal not reality
dialects and ethnic diversity divided populations
literacy media education and armies fostered shared culture

nationalism as a political goal

promoted by educated middle class liberals
argued nations had a right to freedom
aimed to create independent nation states

nationalism and conflict in europe

explosive in central and eastern europe
empires suppressed nationalist movements
others sought unification like italy and germany

industrialization and communication

industrial society required better communication
encouraged standardized national languages
language movements sometimes pushed separatism

nations as imagined communities

nations seen as modern creations
built through shared identity and ideology
reinforced by symbols rituals and traditions

nationalism linked to liberalism and republicanism

nationalists often supported liberal or republican ideas
believed people were the source of government
unity needed to overcome class and local divisions

nationalism and international conflict

emphasized differences between peoples
fostered us versus them thinking
led to rivalry and conflict between nation states

The FIrst Socialists

socialism: A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of industrial society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater social equality, and state regulation of property

emerged as critique of liberalism nationalism capitalism
response to industrialization and laissez faire
sought moral and social renewal

core beliefs of early socialism

desire to reduce poverty and inequality
support for regulating or abolishing private property
emphasis on planning equality and community

utopian socialists and model communities

included saint simon fourier and owen
aimed to create ideal cooperative societies
experiments ultimately failed

saint simon and industrial positivism

believed progress came from scientific organization
favored rule by scientists engineers industrialists
stressed planning public works and brotherhood

fourier and cooperative phalanxes

proposed self sufficient communal living
collective property and cooperation
advocated women’s emancipation and sexual freedom

robert owen and practical socialism

promoted worker welfare and unions
envisioned cooperative industrial communities
inspired later reform movements

anarchism and proudhon

argued property was theft
rejected states and authority
favored loose worker associations

louis blanc and state centered reform

supported universal suffrage
wanted peaceful worker control of state
argued for welfare and guaranteed jobs

rise of worker socialism in france

workers opposed laissez faire restrictions
developed class consciousness and collective action
socialist movement formed in 1830s and 1840s

The Rise of Marxist Socialism
Marxism: An influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, which called for a working-class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state

france led socialism in 1840s
karl marx systematized socialist thought
marxism became a lasting modern ideology

marx’s background and life

trained as philosopher and journalist
exiled for radical writings
settled in london and wrote capital

intellectual influences on marx

drew from economics philosophy history
adapted smith ricardo and utopian socialists
believed history followed scientific laws

class struggle as engine of history

history driven by economic conflict
society split into bourgeoisie and proletariat
owners exploited workers through control of production
bourgeoisie: The upper-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat
proletariat: The industrial working class who, according to Marx, were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking bourgeoisie

revolution and communism

proletariat would grow poorer and united
violent revolution would overthrow bourgeoisie
communism would end class struggle

marxist critique of capitalism

labor became a commodity under capitalism
workers paid less than value they produced
surplus value taken as profit

capitalism as global and exploitative

capitalism highly productive but unequal
expanded worldwide in search of profit
ideas like property and morality masked exploitation

impact of the communist manifesto

movement small in 1848
left wing groups initially divided
marxism reshaped global radical politics

Lesson 11.3: What were the characteristics of the Romantic movement?

rise and spread of romanticism

rejected enlightenment rationality and classicism
emphasized emotion imagination and individualism
developed from 1750 peaked by 1790s and declined after 1840

The Romantic Worldview

romanticism: An artistic movement at its height from about 1790 to the 1840s that was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life

hate voltaire and rousseau

contrast with enlightenment

intuition and nostalgia over reason and progress
embraced religious ecstasy over secularization
explored love desire hatred and the self

romanticism and nature

enchanted by storms forests and wilderness
nature as beauty or spiritual source
opposed industrialization and idealized the past

romanticism and history

history seen as organic and dynamic
historical novels and scholarly works explored national destiny
encouraged people to connect with the past

romantic lifestyle and values

lived intensely with emotional extremes
rejected societal norms and embraced bohemian life
aimed for full development of individual potential

Romantic Literature

romantic poetry in england

first major poets: blake wordsworth coleridge scott
later figures: byron shelley keats
poetry emphasized ordinary language and powerful emotion

wordsworth and coleridge

lake district community and collaboration
lyrical ballads abandoned classical conventions
nature seen as sacred and morally meaningful

romantic literary circles and mary shelley

gathered around shelley and byron
mary shelley wrote frankenstein in 1816
combined literary innovation with personal experience

french romanticism

emerged 1820–1850 in lamartine hugo sand
hugo combined extreme emotion, historical settings, and social liberty
political views of writers varied widely

german romanticism and nationalism

intertwined literature and national identity
studied folk life and preserved traditions
grimms collected folktales as national heritage

slavic romanticism and nation-building

turned spoken peasant languages into written forms
strengthened regional national identities
fueled independence movements in multi-ethnic empires

Romanticism in Art and Music

romantic painting in england

turner depicted nature’s power and terror
constable painted peaceful, pastoral landscapes
reflected emotional range of romanticism

romantic music and composers

abandoned strict classical structures
expanded orchestra and evoked powerful emotions
created musical “landscapes” expressing human feeling

music as cultural prestige

music became an artistic end in itself
virtuosos like liszt celebrated as cultural heroes
elevated public status of musicians

beethoven and emotional extremes

used contrasting themes to create drama and resolution
embodied romantic ideals in life and work
overcame personal struggles, including deafness, to compose masterpieces

Lesson 11.4: How did reforms and revolutions challenge conservatism after 1815?

political unrest 1815–1848

romantics transformed arts while politics shifted
liberal nationalist and socialist forces challenged conservatism
change occurred through reform or violent uprising in greece britain france

The Greek War of Independence
greek war of independence

greece revolted against ottoman rule 1821–1829
united by language religion and nationalist ideas
supported by european romantic writers and public opinion

european intervention and diplomacy

metternich and holy alliance initially opposed revolution
britain france russia pressured ottomans and defeated their fleet at navarino
russian invasion forced ottoman withdrawal

outcomes and consequences

greece declared independent 1830 with a german king in 1833
war caused devastation and resentment toward imposed monarchy
inspired other nationalist movements and signaled ottoman decline

Liberal Reform in Great Britain

gradual reform and political context in britain

britain stable but aristocracy dominated
limited voting rights ~8 percent of population
tories and whigs led by aristocrats, workers protested

corn laws of 1815

corn laws: British laws governing the import and export of grain, which were revised in 1815 to place high tariffs on imported grain, thus benefiting the aristocracy but making food prices high for working people
high tariffs on imported grain
increased bread prices benefiting aristocracy
triggered economic distress for working class

protests and government repression

1817 labor demonstrations and radical support
peterloo massacre 1819, 18 killed, 600+ wounded
peterloo massacre: The British army’s violent suppression in 1819 of a protest that took place at Saint Peter’s Fields in Manchester in reaction to the revision of the Corn Laws
six acts restricted press and mass meetings

middle-class pressure and liberal reforms

industrial/commercial groups demanded political influence
tory government improved urban administration and civil equality
encouraged middle-class push for parliamentary reform

reform bill of 1832

reform bill of 1832: A major British political reform that increased the number of male voters by about 50 percent and gave political representation to new industrial areas
whigs responded to middle-class interests
house of commons strengthened, rotten boroughs eliminated
voting expanded to ~12 percent adult men

chartist movement 1838–1848

called for universal male suffrage
petitions to parliament in 1839, 1842, 1848 rejected
working class learned mass political organization

anti-corn law league and repeal 1846

alliance of working-class and middle-class
famine threat from irish potato crop failure
repeal of corn laws, free trade doctrine strengthened

ten hours act 1847 and political dynamics

limited workday for women and young people in factories
tories competed with middle-class for working-class support
peaceful political evolution through temporary alliances

Ireland and the Great Famine

irish land system and exploitation

majority catholic peasants rented from minority protestant landlords
absentee landlords set rents and evicted tenants at will
middleman system maximized landlord profit

living conditions and poverty

peasants lived in extreme misery
contemporary accounts highlighted desperate conditions
french traveler compared ireland to slavery and indigenous suffering

population growth and potato dependence

population doubled 1780–1840 from 4m to 8m
potato staple allowed survival on small plots
early marriage and large families supported labor needs

potato crop failures and famine

frequent crop deficiencies from 1820 onward
major failures 1845–46, 1848, 1851 led to widespread starvation
famine devastated already poor rural population
great famine: The result of four years of potato crop failure in the late 1840s in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple.

british government response

slow and limited aid due to free-trade ideology
continued tax collection and landlord rent demands
tenants evicted despite famine

demographic impact of famine

1 million emigrated, up to 1.5 million died
elderly and young most affected
ireland’s population declined unlike other european countries

rise of irish nationalism

famine deepened anti-british sentiment
fueled campaigns for land reform and home rule
collective memory influenced later independence movements

The Revolution of 1830 in France

french constitutional charter under louis xviii

1814 charter protected middle-class and peasant gains from revolution
allowed some intellectual/artistic freedom and created parliament
moderate royalists controlled lower chamber 1816–1824

limited suffrage and voter composition

only 100,000 wealthy men out of 30 million could vote
voters included businessmen, ex-revolutionaries, large landowners, bourbons, bonapartists
old aristocracy was a minority within the electorate

charles x and reactionary policies

attempted to restore old order 1824–1830
blocked by deputies, turned to military adventure in algeria
conquest of algeria 1830–1847 led to settlement by european immigrants

july revolution of 1830

charles x revoked charter, censored press, reduced middle-class voting rights
paris insurrection led by artisans and small traders toppled him in three days
upper middle class installed louis philippe, duke of orléans

european ripple effects

belgium gained independence from netherlands
swiss cantons amended constitutions after liberal pressure
polish nationalist revolt crushed by russian army

louis philippe and limited change

accepted 1814 charter and revolutionary symbols
upper middle class maintained status quo and narrow liberal institutions
popular demands for reform by republicans, democrats, and poor largely ignored

Lesson 11.5: What were the main causes and consequences of the revolutions of 1848?

european crisis and early revolts, late 1840s

bad harvests and uneven industrial development caused widespread poverty
radical ideologies gained popularity after french revolution
limited uprisings in kraków, portugal, switzerland, and sicily

full-scale revolution of 1848

france erupted in february, inspiring revolts across europe
ordinary people demanded political and national rights from authoritarian governments
some countries untouched: great britain, belgium, netherlands, ottoman and russian empires

outcomes of 1848 revolutions

conservative governments eventually restored by violent suppression by end of 1849
national independence, democratic constitutions, and social reform briefly seemed achievable
revolutionary momentum encouraged long-term spread of new political ideals

A Democratic Republic in France

revolution in paris, february 1848

louis philippe’s “bourgeois monarchy” served wealthy elites and ignored reforms
economic depression and crop failures worsened conditions
popular revolt forced king to abdicate and provisional republic declared

creation of second republic

national assembly drafted democratic constitution with universal male suffrage
decrees included liberty, fraternity, equality, workplace reforms, abolition of death penalty and slavery
revolutionary momentum spread across europe

divisions within revolutionary coalitions

moderate middle-class republicans opposed further social reforms
radical republicans and urban artisans supported socialist measures and worker-owned businesses
disagreements weakened revolutionary unity in paris and other european hotspots

economic crisis and national workshops

louis blanc and alexandre martin advocated “right to work” and cooperative workshops
compromise created national workshops as public works program
enrollment surged from 10,000 to 120,000, with another 80,000 unable to join

april elections and republican defeat

first-time voters elected majority monarchists and conservatives
moderate republicans won about 270 seats, radicals/socialists only 80
results reflected peasant support for property and hostility toward socialism

clash of classes and arms, may–june 1848

executive committee excluded socialist representatives
artisans and workers attempted uprising in paris on may 15
government and middle-class national guard crushed revolt, dissolved workshops on june 22

Revolution and Reaction in the Austrian Empire

europe-wide revolutionary excitement, 1848

news of french revolution sparked revolts across sweden, denmark, spain, italian states
increased popular political awareness and spread new political ideologies
reinforced idea that the state was responsible for citizens’ well-being

revolution phases in central europe

first, liberals demanded constitutions, civil liberties, representative government
second, revolutionary coalitions broke down after initial victories
third, monarchies, aristocracies, and armies reasserted authority and revoked reforms

austrian empire revolution

began in hungary with demands for autonomy, press freedom, civil liberties, universal suffrage
uprisings in lombardy-venetia and vienna forced emperor ferdinand i to promise reforms
resignation of metternich marked apparent collapse of absolutist order

instability of revolutionary coalition

abolition of serfdom satisfied peasants, reducing their revolutionary interest
urban revolutionaries divided over socialist workshops and universal male suffrage
class divisions weakened political unity

conflicting national aspirations

hungarian revolutionaries sought centralized nation, minority groups resisted
czech and german nationalist tensions in bohemia undermined coalition
monarchy exploited ethnic divisions to maintain power

conservative aristocratic counterrevolution

archduchess sophia organized nobles to restore authority
army crushed prague revolt in june 1848 and italian insurrection by august
vienna retaken in october with heavy artillery, over 4,000 casualties

restoration of hapsburg control

franz joseph crowned emperor in december 1848
hungary subdued by russian intervention in june 1849
hapsburgs ruled hungary as conquered territory for several years

Prussia, the German Confederation, and the Frankfurt National Assembly
prussia and liberal reform, 1848

liberals sought constitutional monarchy in prussia to lead german unification
crop failures and economic crises fueled demands for reform
urban crowds pushed for liberal reforms and a national parliament

riots and king’s concessions

berlin artisans and factory workers rioted, allied briefly with middle-class liberals
king friedrich wilhelm iv promised a liberal constitution and integration into a german state
tension between worker demands and aristocratic resistance emerged

workers vs middle-class liberals

urban workers pressed for democratic and socialist reforms beyond moderate liberalism
prussian constituent assembly convened to draft constitution
conservative clique rallied around king to counter-revolution

frankfurt national assembly

elections across german confederation for federal parliament
delegates were elites: lawyers, professors, businessmen
advocated moderate national liberalism, ignored radical worker, peasant, and socialist demands

greater germany: A liberal plan for German national unification that included the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire, put forth at the National Assembly in 1848 but rejected by Austrian rulers

national assembly considered greater germany including austria vs lesser germany without austria
austrian resistance blocked greater germany plan
counter-revolution gained strength in prussia and other german states

frankfurt constitution and reaction, 1849

national assembly drafted liberal constitution for lesser germany and offered crown to friedrich wilhelm iv
prussia crushed popular movements, disbanded constituent assembly
frankfurt deputies acted too timidly, assembly dissolved by june 1849

friedrich wilhelm and german unification, 1850–1851

king wanted authoritarian unification, austria and russia blocked him
german confederation re-established, decade of reaction followed
state surveillance, exile of revolutionaries, liberals abandoned unification

moderate reforms and ideological impact

moderate monarchs granted conservative constitutions and weak parliaments
limited popular representation remained under aristocratic control
revolutionary experience spread liberalism, socialism, nationalism with popular appea