AP U.S. history exam review
Early European Exploration and Spanish Colonization (1491-1607)
European colonization of the New World during the period of - did not mark the true beginning of American history, but it did represent a pivotal cultural clash. Native American societies were primarily characterized by a lack of advanced machinery, gunpowder, metalwork, and written languages, and they did not practice Christianity. Furthermore, indigenous social structures differed significantly from European models, as they lacked marital inequality, material wealth accumulation, and the concept of private property. These cultural differences were seized upon by Europeans to categorize Native Americans as barbaric, providing a moral justification for the uprooting and colonization of indigenous communities under the guise of saving them from savagery.
Spanish colonization was initiated in earnest in when the Spanish crown, represented by Ferdinand and Isabella, sought to extract wealth from and exert control over the inhabitants of the newly "discovered" lands. Christopher Columbus pioneered Spanish dominance in South America, and he was followed by conquistadors motivated by the trifecta of wealth, glory, and Catholic conversion. Utilizing advanced European weaponry and aided by the accidental introduction of the smallpox virus, these conquerors decimated the Aztec and Inca empires. However, not all Spaniards supported these methods; the priest Bartolomé de las Casas, a native sympathizer, argued in his work, "Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies," that his countrymen used faith as a thin veil for violent megalomania. The brutal treatment of natives led to the "Black Legend," an anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic propaganda narrative used by later English settlers to justify their own presence, though the English would eventually prove even crueler than the Spanish.
French and Dutch Approaches to Colonization
While the French and Dutch also introduced European legal systems, Christianity, technology, and economic practices to the New World, they attempted to avoid the infamy of the Black Legend by adopting less violating approaches to settlement. New France focused primarily on the fur trade rather than establishing permanent agricultural settlements. Consequently, the French relied on maintaining friendly relations with Native Americans, respecting indigenous religions while offering full French citizenship to those who chose to convert to Catholicism.
Similarly, the Dutch arrived in the New World primarily for profit rather than conquest. Having recently achieved independence from Spain, the Netherlands valued two freedoms not commonly recognized in Europe: freedom of the press and freedom of religion. These values were reflected in the governance of New Netherland, where settlement was encouraged for anyone capable of generating profit, regardless of their religious affiliation.
The Columbian Exchange and the Rise of the Atlantic Slave Trade
The single largest catalyst for European success in the Americas was the Columbian Exchange. This vast transfer of goods and diseases saw New World crops exported to Europe, but more impactfully, it brought smallpox to the Americas. Smallpox decimated hundreds of thousands of indigenous people, which eased the path for Spanish colonization but simultaneously created a labor shortage. Because the indigenous population was too diminished to sustain plantation work, European colonizers shifted toward the Transatlantic slave trade, importing enslaved people from Africa to work on plantations in the West Indies. This established a triangular trade system where enslaved individuals were purchased in Africa, their labor produced raw goods in the Americas, and the resulting products were shipped back to Europe.
The Evolution of the Chesapeake Colonies
The Chesapeake colonies, including Virginia and Maryland, were largely established as joint-stock colonies (also known as corporate or charter colonies). In this model, independent contractors pooled funds with the expectation of a return on their investment. To encourage recruitment, the Virginia Company introduced the headright system in , offering acres of land to any settler who paid for another person's passage. This system allowed wealthy Englishmen to establish massive estates and consolidate political and social power early in the colonies' histories.
These estates were initially worked by indentured servants, who were typically young, poor, single English men serving contracts of to years. Nearly of English migrants arrived under such contracts, hoping to acquire land afterward. However, servants rarely obtained property due to insufficient freedom dues, death before the contract's end, or land scarcity. While the first shipment of African slaves arrived in Virginia in , the colonies did not become fully dependent on the Transatlantic slave trade until the latter half of the th century. This transition saw hundreds of thousands of slaves transported via the Middle Passage. To solidify this new economic reality, colonial authorities established laws promoting white supremacy; for example, the Virginia House of Burgesses decreed in the s that the status of a child (free or slave) followed that of the mother, making the exploitation of enslaved women profitable for owners.
The Growth and Conflict of Early Virginia
Jamestown, founded in by the Virginia Company, was the first successful English colony. Its early years were fraught with disaster, specifically the "starving time" of the winter of -, during which of the colonists died from disease, drought, and starvation. The colony survived only through the strict discipline of Governor John Smith. Jamestown faced persistent opposition from the Powhatan Confederacy, leading to the Anglo-Powhatan wars in and . The English eventually broke Powhatan authority, resulting in the early use of reservation land for the remaining natives.
Economic stability was achieved through tobacco, Virginia's main cash crop and substitute for gold. Planter John Rolfe spearheaded tobacco cultivation and married Pocahontas to facilitate Christian conversion and land expansion. Politically, Virginia established the House of Burgesses in , the first representative government in English North America, though it was controlled by the gentry. Following the Uprising of , the Virginia Company lost its charter, and Virginia became the first royal colony. Later, internal frustrations over native policy led to Nathaniel Bacon’s Rebellion in , during which settlers burned Jamestown. By , the House of Burgesses enacted a slave code that fully embedded white supremacy into law, transitioning Virginia into a "slave society" where slavery was central to the economy.
Proprietary and Quaker Colonies: Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania
Maryland was founded in by Cecilius Calvert, also known as Lord Baltimore, as a proprietary colony. A Catholic, Calvert aimed for Maryland to be a haven for both Catholics and Protestants, issuing the Maryland Act of Toleration in . However, the colony's history was turbulent; during the English Civil War, Protestant rebels eventually overthrew the Catholic proprietor and established Anglicanism as the official faith. New York, originally the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam (), was characterized by religious diversity and profit-seeking. When the English took over in , they reduced the economic rights of women and free blacks but eventually reinstated Protestant religious toleration and trial by jury through the Charter of Liberties and Privileges.
Pennsylvania was granted to the Quaker William Penn in by King Charles II. The colony was built on Quaker values: religious freedom, equality for all (including women, blacks, and Native Americans), and an absence of a tax-supported church. Penn’s Charter of Liberty offered "Christian liberty" to those who avoided immoral behavior. Penn insisted on purchasing land from indigenous groups at cheap prices rather than seizing it, and he offered refuge to tribes displaced from other colonies. His inclusive suffrage policy made most men eligible to vote.
Puritan New England and Religious Order
Puritan New England was shaped by strict Calvinism and the belief in predestination. Fleeing the Anglican Church, which they viewed as "impure" or too Catholic, Puritans migrated as families during the Great Migration. Unlike the Chesapeake, New England was organized into self-governing towns centered on schools and common land. Literacy was vital so every person could interpret the Bible. Governor John Winthrop described the Massachusetts Bay Colony, chartered in , as a "city upon a hill," establishing the foundation for American exceptionalism—the idea that America is a godly model for other nations.
However, Puritan freedom was restricted to their own religious framework. Voting and holding office required being a "visible saint." Dissenters were harshly punished; Anne Hutchinson was banished in for sedition after challenging the "covenant of works" and claiming direct divine revelation. Her followers were known as antinomians. As religious fervor waned, the Halfway Covenant of made ancestry the basis for voting rights rather than a conversion experience. Later, in , the Dominion of New England briefly united the northern colonies under the unpopular Sir Edmund Andros before being terminated. The era's religious tensions reached a peak in the Salem Witch Trials, where fanaticism led to the execution of people.
Independent New England Colonies and Southern Hierarchies
Plymouth was founded in by Separatists who sought total independence from the Anglican Church. They established the Mayflower Compact, agreeing to "just and equal laws," and survived their first year with the help of Squanto and Governor William Bradford. Connecticut was established in by Thomas Hooker, featuring the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (), the first written constitution in America. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams in after his banishment from Massachusetts; he advocated for the separation of church and state and the fair treatment of Native Americans.
In the Southern colonies, large-scale plantation farming was facilitated by rich soil and a temperate climate. Crops such as rice, indigo, tobacco, and later cotton necessitated a large labor force, leading to the rapid adoption of African slavery. Carolina, founded in as a buffer against Spanish Florida, became a hierarchy defined by slavery rather than its proposed feudal system. Fear of slave uprisings became a reality in the Stono Rebellion, where armed slaves marched toward Florida before being suppressed. Georgia was founded in by James Oglethorpe as a haven for the poor and a slave-free colony, though colonists eventually forced the introduction of slavery and liquor by .
The Enlightenment and the First Great Awakening
The Enlightenment introduced concepts of rationalism, empiricism, and individualism to the colonies. Thinkers like John Locke proposed the Social Contract, arguing government must protect life, liberty, and property. Thomas Hobbes, in "Leviathan," argued for absolutism to prevent human savagery, while Thomas Paine’s "Common Sense" advocated for democracy. This era also popularized deism, the belief in a distant God based on reason, and secularism.
In contrast, the First Great Awakening was a religious revival that rejected Calvinist predestination in favor of spiritual salvation. George Whitefield, a Calvinist who traveled from England, sparked the movement. This revival questioned the political status quo and the relationship between church and state, serving as a reaction against the Enlightenment’s focus on reason. While Whitefield initially criticized slavery, he eventually owned slaves to support his orphanage in Georgia.
Global Conflict and the Road to Revolution
The Seven Years’ War (-) began over land disputes in the Ohio River Valley and expanded into a global imperial war. Under the system of mercantilism, Britain aimed to increase state power through wealth (gold and silver) exported from colonies. The Treaty of Paris () gave Britain all French land in North America. To unify the colonies for defense, Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union in , though it was rejected. Resistance to British rule grew following the war as Britain shifted away from its policy of "salutary neglect."
Reasons for dissent included the Navigation Acts (-), which restricted trade to English ships and ports, and the Proclamation of , which forbade settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. To recover war costs, Parliament passed the Stamp Act in , a direct tax on printed documents. The resulting outcry birthed the phrase "no taxation without representation." Although the Stamp Act was repealed, the Declaratory Act () and Townshend Acts followed. Tension mounted with the Boston Massacre in and the Boston Tea Party in , the latter being a response to the Tea Act which gave a monopoly to the British East India Company. In retaliation, Britain passed the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts, closing Boston's port and suspending the colonial assembly.
The American Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation
The American Revolution officially began with the "shot heard ‘round the world" at Lexington and Concord in . The Second Continental Congress appointed George Washington as commander of the Continental Army. Despite the Olive Branch Petition of , the Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and issued on . The war ended with the colonies winning independence from the British mother country.
Following the revolution, the colonies were governed by the Articles of Confederation, which remained in force until . This first federal government was intentionally weak, lacking the power to tax or regulate commerce, and requiring a majority for decisions. Its primary successes included the Northwest Ordinance of , which created a process for admitting new states and outlawed slavery in those territories. However, the government's inability to resolve debt led to Shays’ Rebellion in , where war veterans protested economic policies. This rebellion underscored the need for a stronger national government and led to the Constitutional Convention.
Drafting the Constitution and the Federalist Era
In , delegates convened in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. The resulting Constitution was formed through compromises: the Virginia Plan (population-based representation) and the New Jersey Plan (equal representation) merged into the Connecticut Compromise, creating a bicameral legislature (House and Senate). To address slavery, the Three-Fifths Compromise counted every enslaved people as for representation and taxation purposes, and a fugitive slave clause was included. The Federalist Papers, written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, advocated for ratification, while the Bill of Rights was added to appease anti-federalists who feared federal tyranny.
George Washington was elected the first president in . His administration faced the Whiskey Rebellion of , which Washington suppressed with force to establish federal authority. Alexander Hamilton’s five-point financial program aimed to establish credit-worthiness, create a national bank, and impose a whiskey tax. This program led to the split between the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans, the latter led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. The election of saw John Adams win, though his administration was marred by the Alien and Sedition Acts (), which restricted free speech and immigrant rights, leading to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions suggesting states could nullify federal laws.
The Market Revolution and the Era of Good Feelings
The Industrial Revolution shifted production from handcrafted goods to mass-produced mechanical items using interchangeable parts, a system called the American System of Manufacturing. This linked with the Market Revolution, which connected northern industry to southern and western agriculture via canals (like the Erie Canal completed in ), steamboats (by Robert Fulton), and railroads. By , the U.S. had miles of track. The Supreme Court supported federal oversight of this growth in Gibbons v. Ogden (). Socially, this era saw the Rise of the middle class and the "Cult of Domesticity," which relegated women to the private sphere of the home.
The "Era of Good Feelings" followed the War of under President James Monroe (, ). This period saw the Missouri Compromise of , which admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while establishing the 36^\regular{o}30' line as the boundary for future slavery. Monroe also issued the Monroe Doctrine in , closing the Western Hemisphere to European colonization. However, economic instability led to the Panic of , the nation's first major recession. This downturn prompted many states to eliminate property requirements for voting, expanding the electorate.
The Age of Jackson and the Trail of Tears
Andrew Jackson, elected in and , represented the rise of mass democratic politics. Known for his "trigger-happy" vetoes, he was mockingly called "King Andrew I." He implemented the Indian Removal Act in , despite the Supreme Court ruling in Worcester v. Georgia () that the Cherokee were a sovereign nation. The resulting forced migration, known as the Trail of Tears, saw out of Cherokee die on the march to Oklahoma. Jackson also fought the "Bank War," vetoing the Second Bank of the United States and moving federal funds to "pet banks," which contributed to the Panic of .
The Nullification Crisis of was sparked by the Tariff of Abominations (), which South Carolina attempted to nullify based on theories by John C. Calhoun. Jackson threatened military force via the Force Act before a Compromise Tariff was reached. During this time, the Whig Party formed under Henry Clay, advocating for the American System: internal improvements, a national bank, and protective tariffs. The election of saw Whig candidate William Henry Harrison win, though he died after one month, leaving the presidency to John Tyler, who was a states' rights Democrat that gridlocked his own party's agenda.
Antebellum Reform and Manifest Destiny
The Second Great Awakening was a series of religious revivals led by Charles Finney that emphasized personal salvation and moral rectitude, fueling reform movements. Mormonism was founded by Joseph Smith in , but persecution and the Mormon Extermination Order of forced the group to Utah. Other movements included the Shakers, Robert Owen’s New Harmony, and the American Temperance Society. Transcendentalists like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau (author of "Civil Disobedience") promoted individualism. Women’s rights advocates gathered at the Seneca Falls Convention to fight for suffrage. In abolitionism, William Lloyd Garrison published "The Liberator" (), calling for immediate emancipation.
Manifest Destiny, a term coined by John L. O’Sullivan, described the belief in a God-given right to expand westward. This led to the annexation of Texas () and the Mexican War (-). The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which the U.S. paid million for California and other western lands. However, the expansion of territory reopened the debate over slavery, leading to the Compromise of , which included a harsh Fugitive Slave Law and the concept of popular sovereignty.
The Civil War and Reconstruction
Tension exploded with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of , which led to "Bleeding Kansas." The Dred Scott decision of further inflamed the North by declaring that Congress could not bar slavery from territories. Abraham Lincoln's election in prompted the secession of seven Southern states, led by South Carolina. The Civil War began at Fort Sumter on . Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in , turning the war into a fight for human liberty. The war ended in , followed by the assassination of Lincoln on .
Reconstruction (-) aimed to reintegrate the South and protect freedmen. The th Amendment () banned slavery, the th () guaranteed citizenship and equal protection, and the th () required black male suffrage. However, President Andrew Johnson’s lenient policies allowed for "black codes" and the rise of the KKK. Economic systems like sharecropping kept freedmen in debt. Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of , which gave Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for the removal of federal troops from the South, allowing "Redeemers" to reclaim political control.
The Gilded Age: Industry and Labor
Mark Twain dubbed the late th century the "Gilded Age," a period of rapid economic growth hiding deep social inequality. Industrial titans like John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil) and Andrew Carnegie (Carnegie Steel) amassed vast wealth. Carnegie's "Gospel of Wealth" promoted philanthropy, while Social Darwinism justified unregulated business. In response to exploitation, labor unions like the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed. Violence, such as the Haymarket Square Riot and the Homestead Strike, often undermined union efforts.
In the South, the Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson () established the "separate but equal" doctrine, legalizing Jim Crow segregation. In the West, the Transcontinental Railroad devastated native populations and buffalo. The Dawes Severalty Act of attempted to forcibly assimilate Native Americans by breaking up reservations into -acre plots. Politically, the era saw the rise of the Populist (Peoples') Party, which supported the coinage of silver and government ownership of railroads, famously championed by William Jennings Bryan in his "Cross of Gold" speech during the election.
Progressivism and World War I
Progressives were middle-class reformers who used the government to fix social ills. Muckrakers like Upton Sinclair exposed corporate greed. Theodore Roosevelt, who took office in , implemented the "Square Deal," regulated trusts, and established the National Park Service. He also promoted the "Big Stick" policy and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Successors William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson continued Progressive reforms, including the th (income tax), th (direct senator election), th (prohibition), and th (women's suffrage) amendments.
World War I (-) ended American isolationism. After the sinking of the Lusitania in and the Zimmermann telegram