Cognitive Psych

Attention Selective attention (the ability to focus on one message while ignoring all others) has been demonstrated using the dichotic listening procedure (a different message played in each ear). A number of models have been proposed to explain the process of selective attention. Broadbent's filter model proposes that the attended message is separated from the incoming signal early in the analysis of the signal. Treisman's attenuator model proposes later separation and adds a dictionary unit to explain how the unattended message can sometimes get through. Late selection models propose that selection doesn't occur until messages are processed enough to determine their meaning. Our ability to ignore distracting stimuli can be explained by considering processing capacity and perceptual load. The load theory of attention states that distraction is less likely for high-load tasks because no capacity remains to process potential distracting stimuli. The Stroop effect demonstrates how a powerful task-irrelevant stimulus (i.e. meaningful words that result in a response that competes with the observer's task) can capture attention. Overt attention is shifting attention by making eye movements. Overt attention is determined by bottom-up processes (i.e. stimulus salience) and by top-down-processes (i.e. scene schemas and task demands) which influence how eye movements are directed to parts of a scene. Covert attention is shifting attention without making eye movements. Visual attention can be directed to different places in a scene even without eye movements. The effect of covert attention has been demonstrated by pre-cueing experiments (which have shown that covert attention to a location enhances processing at that location). Eagly's experiment demonstrates that responding is faster for cued locations on an object and that this effect spreads throughout an object (an effect called the same-object advantage). Experiments have shown that attended objects are perceived to be bigger, faster, more richly coloured and higher in contrast than non-attended objects. Covert attention to a location causes an increase in activity at the place on the brain that corresponds to that location. Attention to specific categories of objects (i.e. people or cats) increases the area of the brain devoted to the attended category. This is called attentional warping. Divided attention is possible for easy tasks or for highly practiced difficult tasks. Automatic processing is possible in these situations but it is not possible for very difficult tasks. Driver inattention is one of the major causes of automobile accidents. There is a large amount of evidence that using phones while driving is associated with increases in traffic accidents and decreases in performance of driving-related tasks. Hands-free and voice-activated devices are just as distracting as handheld devices. The use of phones and the internet in general has increased greatly recently. One explanation for frequent checking of phones involves principles of operant conditioning. The distraction caused by phones/the internet has been linked to lower grades, and in extreme cases, negative effects in many areas of a person's life. Mind wandering is very prevalent and has been associated with disruption of ongoing tasks that require focused attention. Mind wandering is associated with activity of the default mode network. Inattentional blindness experiments provide evidence that, without attention, we may fail to perceive things that are clearly visible in the field of view. Inattentional deafness can occur when attention to a high-load visual search task impairs the ability to detect sounds. Change blindness is the inability to detect changes in a scene. It is another example of how inattention can affect perception. Although inattentional blindness/deafness and change blindness indicate that we don't notice everything that is happening, our perceptual system is well-adapted for survival. We can be warned about possible danger by movement and the perceptual system makes optimal use of limited processing resources by focusing on what is being attended. Binding is the process by which object features are combined to create perception of a coherent object. Feature-integration theory explains how binding occurs by proposing two stages of processing: pre-attentive processing and focused attention. The basic idea is that objects are analysed into their features and that attention is necessary to combine these features to create perception of an object. Illusory conjunction, visual search and neuropsychology experiments support feature-integration theory. A number of neural networks are involved in controlling attention. The ventral attention network controls attention based on salience. The dorsal attention network controls attention based on top-down processes. The executive attention network controls attention that involves dealing with conflicting responses. The mechanism of synchronisation helps achieve effective connectivity between different areas in a network.

Long-term memory Encoding is the process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM. Retrieval is transferring information from LTM into working memory. Some mechanisms of encoding are more effective than others in transferring information into LTM. Maintenance rehearsal helps maintain information in STM but is not an effective way of transferring information into LTM. Elaborative rehearsal is a better way to establish long-term memories. Levels of processing theory states that memory depends on how information is encoded or programmed into the mind. According to this theory, shallow processing is not as effective as deep elaborative processing. An experiment by Craik and Tulving showed that memory was better following deep processing than following shallow processing. Evidence that encoding influences retrieval includes research looking at the effect of (1) forming visual images, (2) linking words to yourself, (3) generating information (the generation effect), (4) organizing information, (5) relating words to survival value, and (6) practicing retrieval (the retrieval practice effect or the testing effect). Five memory principles that can be applied to studying are (1) elaborate, (2) generate and test, (3) organize, (4) take breaks, and (5) avoid 'illusions of learning'. There is evidence that note-taking by hand results in better test performance than note-taking by laptop. This can be explained by deeper encoding for handwritten note taking. Retrieving long-term memories is aided by retrieval cues. This has been determined by cued recall experiments and experiments in which participants created retrieval cues that later helped them retrieve memories. Retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions that existed at encoding. This is illustrated by encoding specificity, state-dependent learning, and matching type of processing (transfer-appropriate processing). The principle of encoding specificity states that we learn information along with its context. Godden and Baddeley’s diving experiment and Grant’s studying experiment illustrate the effectiveness of encoding and retrieving information under the same conditions. According to the principle of state-dependent learning, a person’s memory will be better when his or her internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding. Eich’s mood experiment supports this idea. Matching types of processing refers to the finding that memory performance is enhanced when the type of coding that occurs during acquisition matches the type of retrieval that occurs during a memory test. The results of an experiment by Morris support this idea, which is called transfer-appropriate processing. Consolidation is the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state into a more permanent state. Müller and Pilzecker carried out an early experiment that illustrated how memory is decreased when consolidation is disrupted. Synaptic consolidation involves structural changes at synapses. Systems-consolidation involves the gradual recognition of neural circuits. Hebb introduced the idea that the formation of memories is associated with structural changes at the synapse. These structural changes are then translated into enhanced nerve firing, as indicated by long-term potentiation. The standard model of consolidation proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation but that after consolidation is complete, retrieval involves the cortex, with the hippocampus no longer being involved. The multiple-trace model states that the hippocampus is involved both when memories are being established and during the retrieval of remote episodic memories. There is evidence supporting the standard model, but recent research indicates that retrieval of episodic memories can involve the hippocampus, which supports the multiple-trace model. Consolidation is facilitated by sleep. There is also evidence that material people expect they will be asked to remember later is more likely to be consolidated during sleep. Recent research indicates that memories can become susceptible to disruption when they are reactivated by retrieval. After reactivation, these memories must be reconsolidated. There is evidence for the usefulness of reconsolidation therapy in treating conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder. Two explanations have been proposed to explain the results of Hupbach’s experiments in which human memories were reactivated. One explanation involves reconsolidation, the other involves considering the context in which learning takes place.

Problem-solving A problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle. The Gestalt psychologists focused on how people represent a problem in their mind. They devised a number of problems to illustrate how solving a problem involves a restructuring of this representation and to demonstrate factors that pose obstacles to problem-solving. The Gestalt psychologists introduced the idea that reorganization is associated with insight - a sudden realization of a problem’s solution. Insight has been demonstrated experimentally by tracking how close people feel they are to solving insight and non-insight problems. Functional fixedness is an obstacle to problem solving that is illustrated by Duncker’s candle problem and Maier’s two-string problem. Situationally produced mental set is illustrated by the Luchins water jug problem. Alan Newell and Herbert Simon were early proponents of the information-processing approach to problem-solving. They saw problem-solving as the searching of a problem space to find the path between the statement of the problem (the initial state) and the solution to the problem (the goal state). This search is governed by operators and is usually accomplished by setting subgoals. The Tower of Hanoi problem has been used to illustrate this process. Research on the mutilated checkerboard problem also illustrates the importance of how a problem is presented. Newell and Simon developed the technique of think-aloud protocols to study participants’ thought process as they are solving a problem. Analogical problem-solving occurs when experience with a previously solved source problem or a source story is used to help solve a new target problem. Research involving Duncker’s radiation problem has shown that even when people are exposed to analogous source problems or stories, most people do not make the connection between the source problem or story and the target problem. The analogical paradox is that, while it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, analogical problem-solving is often used in real-world settings. Experts are better than novices at solving problems in their field of expertise. They have more knowledge of the field, organize this knowledge based more on deep structure than on surface features, and spend more time analysing a problem when it is first presented. Creative problem-solving is associated with divergent thinking. We have only a limited understanding of the processes involved in creative problem-solving and creativity in general. The examples of George de Mestral and Jorge Odón illustrate how analogy has been used to create practical inventions. Creative problem-solving has been described as a process that begins with generation of the problem and ends with implementation of the solution, with ideas happening in between. The question of what leads to generation of ideas is a complicated one. Knowledge is often essential for generating ideas, but sometimes too much knowledge can be a bad thing, as illustrated by Smith’s experiment showing that providing examples can inhibit creative design. The technique of brainstorming has been proposed as a way to increase creativity, but generating ideas in groups is generally not as effective as generating ideas individually and combining them. The creative cognition technique has been successfully used to create innovative designs. Recent research has shown that deactivating the left anterior lobe can increase creativity; that different brain states, measured with the EEG, are associated with insight-based and analytical-based problem solving; and that the default mode and executive control networks work together during creative thinking. Kaufman and Gregoire’s book Wired to Create lists ten things that highly creative people do differently.

Reasoning and decision-making In inductive reasoning, conclusions follow not from logically constructed syllogisms but from evidence. Conclusions are suggested with varying degrees of certainty. The strength of an inductive argument depends on the representativeness, number, and quality of observations on which the argument is based. Inductive reasoning plays a major role in everyday life because we often make predictions about what we think will happen based on our observations about what has happened in the past. The availability heuristic states that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered. This heuristic can sometimes lead to correct judgments, and sometimes not. Errors due to the availability heuristic have been demonstrated by having people estimate the relative prevalence of various causes of death. Illusory correlations and stereotypes, which can lead to incorrect conclusions about relationships among things, are related to the availability heuristic, because they draw attention to specific relationships and therefore make them more 'available'. The representativeness heuristic is based on the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles other events. Errors due to this heuristic have been demonstrated by asking participants to judge a person’s occupation based on descriptive information. Errors occur when the representativeness heuristic leads people to ignore base rate information. In other situations, judgment errors occur when people ignore the conjunction rule and the law of large numbers. The myside bias is the tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes. The confirmation bias is the tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to a hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it. Operation of this bias was demonstrated by Wason’s number sequence task. Reasoning is a cognitive process in which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information. Deductive reasoning involves syllogisms and can result in definite conclusions. Categorical syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion that describe the relation between two categories by using statements that begin with 'All', 'No' or 'Some'. A syllogism is valid if its conclusion follows logically from its premises. The validity of a syllogism is determined by its form. This is different from truth , which is determined by the content of the statements in the syllogism and has to do with how statements correspond to known facts. Conditional syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form 'If…then'. People do well at judging the validity of the modus ponens syllogism but less well at judging the validity of other forms of conditional syllogisms. Changing the wording of syllogisms while keeping the form the same can help people determine validity. The Wason four-card problem has been used to study how people think when evaluating conditional syllogisms. People make errors in the abstract version because they do not apply the falsification principle. Experiments using real-world versions of the Wason problem, such as the beer/drinking-age version, have demonstrated that the way in which a problem is stated can influence people’s performance. The utility approach to decision-making is based on the idea that people are basically rational, so when they have all of the relevant information, they will make decisions that result in outcomes that are in their best interest. Evidence that people do not always act in accordance with this approach includes gambling behaviour, choosing to drive in the face of evidence that it is more dangerous than flying, and the behaviour of contestants on game shows like 'Deal or No Deal'. Emotions can affect decisions. Expected emotions are emotions a person predicts will happen in response to the outcome of a decision. There is evidence that people are not always accurate in predicting their emotions. This can lead to risk aversion. An experiment by Kermer demonstrates the difference between predicted emotions and the emotions actually experienced after making a decision. There is a large amount of evidence that incidental emotions can affect decisions. For instance, gloomy weather can influence college admissions (i.e. "it's too warm so I'll apply to study in a colder town"). Decisions can depend on the context in which they are made. The number of available choices, the types of decision-making that preceded this decision, and hunger or fatigue can all affect decisions. Decisions can depend on how choices are presented, or framed. Evidence includes the differences in behaviour with opt-in versus opt-out procedures, the results of Slovic’s experiment involving decisions about a mental patient, and people’s response to the Tversky and Kahneman lethal disease problem. When a choice is framed in terms of gains, people tend to use a risk aversion strategy, but when the choice is framed in terms of losses, people tend to use a risk-taking strategy. Neuroeconomics studies decision-making by combining approaches from psychology, neuroscience, and economics. The results of a neuroeconomics experiment using the ultimatum game have shown that people’s emotions can interfere with their ability to make rational decisions. Brain imaging indicates that the anterior insula is associated with the emotions that occur during the ultimatum game, whereas the (prefrontal cortex) PFC may be involved in the cognitive demands of the task. A transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment further demonstrates the causal role of the PFC in decision making. The PFC and insula are also involved in purchasing decisions. Activation in the prefrontal cortex predicts decisions to purchase a product, while activation in the insula predicts decisions not to purchase. The dual-systems approach to thinking proposes that there are two mental systems. System 1 (or Type 1 processing) is intuitive, fast, nonconscious, and automatic. System 2 (or Type 2 processing) is reflective, slow, conscious, and controlled. Many of the errors of reasoning discussed in this chapter can be linked to System 1, although this system also provides many valuable functions that do not involve error. System 2 takes over when slower, more thoughtful thinking is necessary. If Donders returned today, he would be amazed at the technology but perhaps not surprised that cognitive psychologists still study the mind indirectly, just as he did.