Comparative Politics Notes

Empirical vs. Normative Statements

• Empirical Statements: Based on facts.
• Normative Statements: Based on judgment.

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

• States (e.g., France):
  • Sovereignty: The ability to carry out policies within its borders.
• Nations (e.g., Tribal Nations):
  • A group of people with a shared political identity (e.g., Americans, British, French).
  • Nationalism: Extreme pride in one's country or ethnic group (ethnonationalism).

Democracies

Presidential Systems

• Citizens vote for legislative representatives and the executive.
  • Legislators make laws.
  • The executive is the President (voted for via the Electoral College).
• Checks and balances:
  • Prevent one branch of government from becoming too powerful, avoiding dictatorship.
• More gridlock:
  • Potential for inaction or reduced progress.
  • Necessitates compromise for laws (often in "package" deals).

Parliamentary Systems (UK & Japan)

• Parliament is the legislative branch (makes laws).
  • Similar to Congress in the United States.
• Parliamentary Sovereignty:
  • Parliament has the final say in all matters, all the time, whenever.
• The majority party elects the executive (Prime Minister) as the head of government.
  • Citizens do not directly vote for the prime minister.
  • Parliament selects the prime minister from its members.
• Members of Parliament (MPs) are the only elected officials.
  • Citizens vote for MPs, who then vote for the prime minister.
• Presidential vs. Parliamentary Relationships:
  • Presidential: Voters elect the legislature and chief executive independently.
  • Parliamentary: Voters elect the legislature, which then selects the chief executive.

Authoritarian Regimes (Cuba & Myanmar/Burma)

• Small groups of elites rule.
• Citizens have little to no input.
• No overriding constitution.
• Restriction of civil liberties.

Political and Economic Change

Three Major Types of Change

• Reform: Slow change to the existing system.
• Revolution: Overthrow of the existing system (at least in the short term).
• Coup d’Etats: A quick, often violent overthrow of the government (usually by the military).
  • Requires speed and efficiency to prevent counter-organization.

Attitudes Towards Change

• Radicalism: Rapid, dramatic change is needed.
• Liberalism: Progressive reform.
• Conservatives: Maintain the status quo.
• Reactionary: Return to the "Good Ol’ Days".

Command vs. Market Economy

Command Economy

• State control over resources and industries.
  • Little private ownership.
  • Lack of competition.

Market Economy (competition/capitalism; e.g., US, UK, Mexico)

Mixed Systems

• Combine command and market elements (e.g., China and Russia).

Political Institutions

Federal System vs. Unitary

• Federal System: Multiple levels of government (e.g., Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia).
• Unitary: One central government (e.g., UK, Iran, and China).

Supranational

• International organizations with many member states (e.g., UN, NAFTA, OPEC, EU).

Electoral System

• First-past-the-post (aka winner take all or plurality):
  • The most that is not the majority
  • Creates multi-party system legislative branch
  • Coalitions are often formed
  • Voting is for parties, not candidates/individuals.
• The concepts of "50% + 1", plurality, and majority:
  • Example: In a scenario with 9 votes, a majority is 5, while a plurality could be 4 compared to other vote counts like 2 and 3.

Proportional Representation:

• Percentage-based allocation of representation.
  • If a party gets 15% of the votes, it gets 15% of the representation.
  • Reflects the idea of equating votes to resources or effort (e.g., "How much money does it take to get you there?").

Purchasing Power Parity

• Measures what a citizen of a country can buy with relative currency.
• Big Mac Index as an example.

Gini Index

• Measures the amount of economic inequality in a society.
• Ranges from 0 to 1:
  • 0: Perfect equality.
  • 1: Complete inequality.
• Examples:
  • The US is around 0.49.

Human Development Index (HDI)

• Measures well-being of citizens.
• Factors: literacy rates, life expectancy, quality of life.
• Scandinavian countries have higher quality of life compared to other developed countries.

Ethnonationalism

• A form of nationalism where the nation is defined by ethnicity.
• Emphasizes an ethnocentric approach to political issues related to national affirmation.

China Lecture/PRC History

Communist Revolution (Post WWII)

• Mao Zedong:
  • Leader of China from 1949-1976.
  • Maoism: Adapted Marxism-Leninism to focus on peasants due to China's agrarian society.
    • Replaces the focus on the proletariat with the peasantry.
  • No private ownership:
    • Aims for a classless society with shared resources and no rich or poor.
  • Resulted in widespread suffering and millions of deaths due to Mao's policies.
    • Collectivization efforts leading to famine.
• Five Year Plan & Great Leap Forward
  • More people died under Mao's Five Year Plan than in the Soviet Union.

Post-Mao Era

• Deng Xiaoping (ruled 1978-1992):
  • Socialist Market Economy:
    • Gradual introduction of capitalism.
    • The state maintains political control and influences major parts of the economy.
• Hu Jintao (2002-2012):
  • General Secretary of the CCP, Head of Party.
  • The most powerful person in the party.
• Wen Jibao (2002-2012):
  • Premier, Head of the Government.
  • Second most powerful person in the party.
• Xi Jinping (2012-present):
  • Eliminated the two 5-year term limit for the president.
  • The General Secretary of the CCP.
• Economic Freedom, limited political freedoms
  • As people become wealthier, they desire more social freedom.
  • China's economic growth has created a large middle class, but without corresponding political freedoms.
• Communist Party of China (CCP) is the true source of power.
  • Membership is essential for holding power.
  • Citizens have freedom of travel/movement.
  • Opening up under Deng Xiaoping allowed Chinese citizens to travel.
• All decisions made by the government must be approved by the Party.
  • Constitution is largely irrelevant.

Structure of Government, PRC

• Premier: Head of the Government
  • Part of the Politburo Standing Committee.
  • State Council Standing Committee (SCSC) meets twice weekly.
  • State Council (Executive Branch):
    • SCSC is part of the State Council and votes for its members.
    • Drafts legislation.
• National People's Congress Standing Committee (Legislative Branch):
  • Meets regularly and does real legislative work.
• National People's Congress (NPC):
  • Members chosen from lower congresses (Provincial/State level).
  • Very large (3000 members), meets only 2 weeks/year.
  • Primarily a rubber stamp.

Structure of Party

• GENERAL SECRETARY:
  • Head of CCP, Leader of China, and President.
  • Xi Jinping (2012-forever).
• Politburo Standing Committee:
  • 5 to 9 members.
  • The General Secretary and Premier come from here.
  • Most powerful group in China.
• Politburo:
  • About 24 Members.
  • The Politburo SC comes from here.
• Leading Small Groups:
  • Undertake the grunt work on legislation.
  • Chaired by the Politburo.
• Central Committee:
  • Approximately 300 members.
  • Chooses the Politburo.
• National Party Congress (NOT the NPC):
  • Too Large.
  • Meets once every 5 years.
  • Approves the General Secretary.

Party vs. Government

• Elections are noncompetitive and controlled by the party.
• The party oversees the government.
• Protests against the government are not tolerated.

Cleavages

• Divisions in society including:
  • Ethnic divisions: 92% Han Chinese.
  • Regional tensions: Tibet and Hong Kong.
  • One Country, Two Systems in Hong Kong
  • Urban-Rural divide.

United Kingdom

What is the United Kingdom?

• The UK has 4 parts
  • Scotland
  • Wales
  • England
  • Northern Ireland
• Great Britain
  • Scotland
  • Wales
  • England
• Ireland is Catholic, the UK was Protestant
• Brexit: The British exit from the European Union
  • Scotland, Wales, & Northern Ireland have been increasing in power in recent years
    • Devolution

Welfare State, Oldest Democracy

• Welfare State: Usually provides more to the people, higher taxes, free healthcare & higher education.
• N. Ireland, Scotland, Wales, England (own Pearls w/limited sovereignty)
  • The UK is considered a “Unitary Government” (but other regions have their government)
    • England/London reigns supreme; they hold all the power.
    • N. Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have governments/parliaments.
• Former European Union Member
  • When the UK was a part of the EU, they hated it.
  • Anti-Euro
  • Insularity (culturally closer to the US than Europe)
    • Ignorance of or lack of interest in cultures, ideas, or peoples outside one's experience

Sources of Power

• Unwritten Constitution (traditions)
• Democratic System
• Parliamentary System
• Free Market Economy
• Protestant dominant
  • Protest against the Catholic church
  • Non-catholic christians
  • Economic reasons

Political Institutions

• Unitary System
  • A Hint of Federalism
    • Wales, Scotland, etc, have their own Parliament
    • However, those parliaments are overruled by centralized power in Westminster.
  • Insularity: is ignorance of or lack of interest in cultures, ideas, or peoples outside one’s experience.
• Parliamentary Sovereignty
  • It holds that the legislative body has absolute sovereignty and is supreme over all other government institutions, including executive or judicial bodies.
• Head of State
  • King Charles III
  • Ceremonial powers
• Head of Government
  • Prime Minister
    • Comes from Majority Party or Plurality Party w/ Coalition
    • In the House of Commons
    • First among equals—Power over policy agenda and the leader of the party
    • The Minister of Education and Prime Minister are equals; however, the Prime Minister is the first (hence, PRIME).
    • Gets policies through easily
    • Parliamentary Sovereignty, Parliament Rules

UK Continued Political Institutions

• Unitary System
  • (Still under Prime Minister)
  • Collective responsibility (w/ cabinet)
    • The Prime Minister and Cabinet
  • NOT directly elected by the people, only by other MPs.
  • List of Prime Ministers

UK Continued

• Bicameral Legislature
  • A legislature that has two camerals, two chambers
  • House of Commons (Lower House)
    • Closer to the people
    • Real power–legislation comes from here
    • PM comes from the House of Commons
    • 650 MPs total
    • Most cabinet comes from here (but do not have to)
    • 2nd Party (party across from the party in power) acts as a check/opposition (currently Conservative)
    • ‘Question Hour’--/once a week
    • The Shadow Government is created from the 2nd party.
      • The primary reason for this is that another member needs to step in.
      • The Leader of Opposition can be voted out by the party at any time.
    • The majority party does not want to lose a ‘vote of confidence’; otherwise, they will spiral into new elections.

UK Continued

• Elections
  • House of Commons Only
  • Single-Member Districts–First Past the Post (winner take all/plurality)
    • 650 districts
  • Devolution–sharing power with Scotland, Wales, N. Ireland
    • Vote for Candidate
    • Leads to a 2-party system (although numerous minor parties)
  • Fixed-term Parliaments Act of 2011
    • Held every 5 years starting in 2015

Political Parties

• Labour and Conservative are the big 2
  • Labour Party (center-left)
    • More likely to promote a welfare state (like US Democrats)
  • Conservative Party (center-right)
    • More pro-business and tough on foreign policy

Extra information

• “Parliamentary Sovereignty” limits judicial powers
• Highest Court is Supreme Court (since 2005)
• No power of Judicial review
• Patron-Clientelism
  • The party held uninterrupted power in the country and controlled the presidency twice: the first one was for 71 years, from 1929 to 2000, the second was for six years, from 2012 to 2018.
  • State Corporatism
    • Mutual arrangement between a person that has authority, social status, wealth, or some other personal resource (patron) and another who benefits from their support or influence (client)
      • System based on”Who you know”
      • Patron is the individual who is in power.
      • Citizens support local elites (politicans/business leaders) and in return gets need/wants furnished
        • Want the support of the politician? Use Patron-Clientelism, inherently courrpt.
          • Can get more stuff done, suppoedy.
        • Corruption is inherent.
        • Controlled by PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) for 70 years.
• NAFTA
  • North American Free Trade Agreement
    • Important Supranational Organization
    • Permits Machiladoras to flourish
      • Machiladroas are factories, manufacturing hubs
        • Most are south of the border/north of Mexico
        • Most are owned by US and Chinese companies
          • Cheaper workforce in Mexico rather than the US
        • Allows exploitation to flourish
        • Has not significantly reduced poverty in Mexico
• Constitution (1917)
  • Is the source of power and legitimacy
  • Technaically stronger than a presidential system
    • Has been weakened Electoral Reform (1993)
  • Democratic Republic
    • Voting and Representation
    • Trend towards more pluralistic society
• Free Market Economy: Large number of Para-Statals (government owned corporation - PEMEX, gas station)
  • National Supremacy control high percentage of money
    • Electoral law reform of 1993
  • The government controls the interest groups in society.
    • Any group that has interest in the government is a interest group.
    • Do NOT allow interest groups “free reign”. The government puts them together.
    • Represent peasants, labor unions….
      • Multiple interest groups

Mexico Economics

• Government owned companies/corporations are Para-Statals
  • Large gap between rich and poor - traditionally small middle class.
  • Oil is the foundation of the economy

Political Institutions

• Federal System
  • 31 States + Mexico city
    • Each has Governors & its own legislative body
      • More of the money controls flows through mexico city, cannot distribute the money effectively
        • More Centralized than Decentralized
          • Elections every 3 years
            • No re-election
• A Presidential System
  • Single executive (Head of Govt and Head of State)

President History

• Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000)
  • Ended the PRI streak
  • Would not assume party leadership
  • Would not name successor
  • Promoted more open electoral system
  • WAS the last PRI member to be president t
• Vicente Fox (2000-2006)
  • First non-PRI President (PAN, National Action Party)
  • Does not like Trump
• Felpie Calderon (2006-2012)
  • PAN Party
  • Violence went up significantly under his administration
  • Taking on the Drug Cartels
• Enrique Pena Nieto (2012-2018)
  • PRI
  • His policies were, controversial
  • Apparently handsome
• Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) (2018-2024)
  • Left PRD for New MORENA Party
  • Leftist-socialist
  • Poverty was reduced under his administration
• Claudia Sheinbaum (2025 - Present)
  • A Jew

Bicameral Legislative Branch

• Both make the laws
  • Chamber of Deputies (lower house)
    • 500 Members
    • (somewhat true) 3 Dominant Parties (with a sprinkling of other parties)
    • 300 Districts
    • Plurality system
      • MORENA, PVEM, PT had the plurality one election before Nov. 2024
  • Senate (Upper House)
    • 128 Members
    • Power to check chamber of deputies on legislation
      • 3 senators per state
• Electoral System
  • President directly elected by Plurality
    • Chamber of Deputies elected by mixed SMD and proportional rep systems
      • 300 districts, elected by plurality in SMDs
        • 200 elected through national party lists
          • The people represent an idea not people
    • Senate elected by mixed MMS and proportional rep systems
      • MMS - Multi Member State
        • 3 Sentators, Mexico City gets 3
      • Candidates run in paris, winning team gets 2 seats (64 total), 2nd place team gets 1 (32 total)
      • 32 are elected through national part lists-proportional
        • Closer to the people, more representative
        • No Re-election
          • This entire process is called proportional representation
• Political Parties
  • PRI (center left)
• Strengthed the IFE (Federal Election Comission) now the INE (National Election Commission)
  • PAN (center right)
  • MORENA (most leftest)
  • Judiciary
    • No real independent Judiciary
    • No real Judicial review (supreme court sc such authority but is rarely used)
    • Plagued by corruption
  • Zapatistas (EZLN)
    • Movenment in the state of Chiapas for indigenous rights since 1990s (Subcommadante Marcos)
      • Government has attempted to suppression to through military force
        • Suffered heavy loses
          • Guerrilla Warfare
  • Political and Economic Change
    • Biggest political change 1993 Electoral Law Reform
  • Needs a non-biased group to judge the elections to judge whether or not the election is fair
    • Poverty still a huge program
      • 36% of population
• Where does Mexico Rank?
  • GINI: 43.5% / 109
  • Happiness: 25
  • PPP: 13
  • HDI: 3.7%

Definitions:

• PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) Center left
• SMD (Single Member District)
• MMS - Multi Member State
• IFE (Federal Election Comission) now the INE (National Election Commission)

Iran Fun Facts

• Population: (80 Million) 17th in the world
• PPP: 20,100 (67th)
  $US: $59,500$$ (13th)
• 80 Million Muslim (99%)--(89% Shia)
  • Both branches of islam causes volitality
  • Shia Muslims: It emphasizes the belief that the leadership of the Muslim community should have been passed down through the Prophet Muhammad's family, specifically his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, and his descendants, known as the Imams
    • Sunni & Shia
      • Including more reilgions (jews, chrisitans, etc)
• Slightly larger than Alaska (18th)
• 972 executions (2nd behind China)

Political Culture

• Authoritarianism – but not totalitarianism
  • Definition: A form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sphere and the private sphere of society.
  • Totalitarianism
    • USSR and North Korea as an examples
      • Authoritarianism
  • Union of political & religious authority
    • Definition: Highly concentrated and centralized government power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential or supposed challengers by armed force.
      • Definition: A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.
        • No separation between church & state

Iran Legitimacy

• Authoritarianism Rule Shahs (1925-1979) - Secular
  • Shahs are like kings
    • Authoritarian, Secular
    • States do NOT have power.
    • Last shah was a Kleptocrat, stole from the people / country Mohammand Reza Pahlavi
      • Secular - Non-religious, they were a non-religious Religion (Shi’ism & Shari’a)o
        • Shi’ism gives the Irani government legitimacy
• 1979 Irani Revolution–Constitution mixture of theocracy & democracy
  • The citizens of Iran are able to vote for some people in government.

Iranian Theocracy

• Ayatollahs (Title for Shi’a experts in Islamic studies)
  • Authoritarian AND Theocratic
  • Highest tital in Shiism
  • If you want to rule Iran you MUST be Ayatollah
  • Must be a male
  • Khomeini
    • Took over in 1979
    • America’s #1 enemy
    • Was in exile
    • Spread his words 10-15 years before the Iranian revolution
  • Khamenei
    • Took over in 1989
    • Still in power

Economic System

• 50% revenue from oil
• Member of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
• Religious foundations make up about half of budget
  • One of the ways to distribute money is through Shia
• US Sanctions

Theocracy

• State is ruled by religious leaders

  • No separation between church and state
  • Must be based on the laws of Islam

• Since ‘79 Islamic Republic

  • Happened because “disco”

• Supreme Leader is highest ranking political and religious figure

  • Has a legislative branch and judicial forming and writing laws
  • Guardian council has to approve the laws
    • Political Institutions

Iran Government

• Unitary system (centralized federalism)
  • Tehran is the power, holds all of the power. 2. Provinces, districts & local governance 3. Reality—power rests Supreme Leader and Guardian Council
  • NOT a dictatorship, the supreme leader has a lot of power, but does not control everything.

Iranian Political Structure

• Theocratic Democracy
  • Has voters, the voters vote for the people in parliament (290 members)
  • Guardian Council can “erase” candidate names
  • Gets in conflict with the Parliament
  • Chief Judge put into power by the supreme leader
    • More of an advisory board
      • Jurist Guardianship
        • Supreme Leader oversees Islamic State
• Voters also vote for Assembly of Experts
  • 86 Members
  • Need to be high in the Islamic state
• Voters also vote for the President
  • Appoints cabinet (not voted for)

Theocracy continued- Iran political organization

• The supreme leader, expediency council, and guardian council are not voted for

• Supreme leader Must be an ayatollah, the president does not have to be a religious expert

  • The President runs the country day-to-day.
  • The supreme leader and guardian council have jurist guardianship, overseeing the entire country.
    • The supreme leader is picked by the assembly of experts

• Supreme Leader (Head of State w/ Power)

  • Must be Ayatollah
  • Can eliminate presidential candidates
  • Can dismiss the President
  • The ayatollah gets to nominate 6 of the guardian council

• Guardian Council

  • 12 clerics overseeing theocracy (Jurist Guardianship)
  • 6 appointed by the supreme leader
  • 6 appointed by the Chief Judge, approved by Parliament
  • Reviews bills passed by Parliament (Majilis) to ensure Sharia conformity

• Assembly of Religious Experts (ARE)

  • 86 members directly elected, the guardian council must approve candidates

• Oversees theocracy in conjunction with supreme leader & guardian council

• Can elect & dismiss the supreme leader (theoretically)

• Expediency Council

• A referee between both parties, reconcile the different views of them.

  • Pezeshkian (2024-Present) (won't be on test)

• These 3 make up the Theocracy

• Statism: an advocate of a political system in which the state has substantial centralized control over social and economic affairs. (democratic)

• Acts as a conference committee between guardian council & majlis (parliament)

  • 32 members, appointed by the supreme leader

• Rasfanjani (1989-1997)

  • Moderate conservative

• Khatami (1997-2005)

  • Reformer, critic of Amadinejad

• Ahamdinejad (2005-2013)

  • Outspoken conservative

• Rouhani (2013-2021)

  • Seem open to reform

• Raisi (2021-2024)

  • Died in a helicopter crash

Legislative Branch (Majilis)

• Unicameral (King of)
  • Yes, it is unicameral
  • Directly elected by the people
    • Guardian Council blocks legislation, that’s why it's ‘kind of’
  • 290 seats elected through single member districts (SMDs)
    • 4 year terms
    • All but 5 have to be Muslim, the other 5 can be other reiligions
    • In charge of Legislation (Kind of…)
    • Theocracy oversee the government
      • Supreme Leader & Guardian Council blocks them

Judicial Branch

• Sharia Law dictates
  • Islamic Law
  • SL, GC, & ARE essentially have judicial review

Political & Economic Change

• 1979 Islamic Revolution
  • The 1979 Iranian Revolution was a transformative event that led to the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, headed by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the establishment of the Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. This revolution was marked by mass popular protests, strikes, and civil unrest that united a diverse coalition of secular, religious, and leftist groups against the Shah’s regime

Public Policy a. Economy tied to Oil price i. About 40% of economy centrally planned–most heavy industry