History

1. How is Cleopatra represented in the ancient sources?

·       Coins

o   Signifies wealth and status that she even appears on a coin

o   Shown often wearing jewellery, adornments on head

o   Roman nose and masculine power

o   Primary, visual – Rome à political relationship w/ Rome?

·       Relief of Cleo as goddess, c. 69-30 BC, Temple of Hathor

o   Wearing the goddess’ distinctive crown + vulture headdress

o   Cleo identified herself with the goddess Hathor (deity of love, joy, fertility) to legitimise her rule and solidify her status as a divine queen

o   Long, flowing hair

o   Staff – symbol of power, authority and dominion

o   Ankh – signifies granting of eternal life to pharaohs

·       Cassius Dio

o   Ancient source

o    

2. How has Cleopatra been represented over time?

·       “Cleo Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners” (1887)

o   Modern source – may have a more contemporary opinion/portrayal of her

o   Elevated platform – superior?

o   Scene of comfort and calmness as opposed to violent scene in background (slaves dragging away prisoner/body)

o   Spread out on a chaise, relaxed

o   Clothes – regalia – adorned with gold, probably lapis lazuli 

o   Live animals

o   Depicted as ‘white’

o   Lack of interest in the injury of others à cruel?

o   Attended to by servants

·       “Julius Caesar restores Cleopatra to Egyptian Throne” (1637)

o   Modern contemporary source

o   Caesar establishing his authority + support for her reign

o   Again depicted as white

o   Ppl talking amongst themselves in background

o   Positioned centrally

o   Holding hands – symbolic of alliance + power

o   Richly adorned clothes

o   Caesar wears laurel, symbol of power + authority

o   Cleo’s rival sister present – depicted in anger – what is she thinking?

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3. What was Cleopatra’s historical and family background?

·       family stemmed from the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

·       three successor kingdoms (Hellenistic Kingdoms) included Macedonia itself. all established amongst territory Alexander the Great conquered.

·       One of Alexander the Great's most trusted generals, Ptolemy I (also believed to be his half-brother), took over after his death à founded the Hellenistic kingdoms amongst the land A had conquered.

o   One of these kingdoms was Egypt, kingdom Cleopatra, among other members of her family, was born in.

·       first Ptolemaic king = Ptolemy I Soter (Saviour) Came to power after the death of his king, Alexander the Great. cemented his position as king by adopting style and many traditions of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.

·       The capital of Egypt at this time was Alexandria.

·       Technically, Alexander the Great founded and named the city after himself, one among many, but it was pretty much the sole city whose name survived. However, Ptolemy I and his successors basically built Alexandria from the ground up.

·       Alexandria was the largest, richest and most splendid city of its time. It was the cultural centre of its time and attracted scholars from all over the known world. Its museum was described as the world's 'first university'. Its library was one of the first to attempt to have a copy of every work ever written.

·       Politically weak Ptolemaic Egypt was massively dependent upon the Roman empire. Rome controlled all of Alexander's former empire besides Egypt, however Egypt maintained this freedom through the payment of huge bribes to important Romans, which wouldn't've been very beneficial. Rome however prizing Egypt’s wealth and grain was forced to prop up its feeble dynasty in exchange.

·       Hellenistic Egypt was under increasing pressure from Rome during the time of Cleopatra, which influenced her relationship with the prominent Romans Caesar and Mark Antony, directly related to her determination to maintain Egypt's independence at any cost.

4. How did Cleopatra gain and consolidate and eventually lose her power?

5. What was the nature and significance of Cleopatra’s relationship with Julius Caesar?

6. What was the nature and significance of Cleopatra’s relationship with Mark Antony?

7. What was the nature and significance of Cleopatra’s relationship with Octavian?

8. What is Cleopatra’s legacy?

9. Why might Cleopatra be described as a woman who dared?

People

Cleopatra

·       Eliminates threats from the family (brusbands) to cement her position

o   While her brusbands can’t anything now, they are future threats – also subject to political whisperings from outside royal court

o   Cleopatra is unable to be queen on her own – female pharaohs that we have seen have had a male regent – based in mythology – Isis and Osiris

·       Securing throne for herself and son  

Caesar

Mark Antony

Caesarion (Ptolemy XV)

·       Although cleopatra could have married him, wouldn’t normally do that

·       Cleopatra is the type of person who would unlikely give up the throne even if Caesarion was of age – giving Elizabeth II and Charles

Propaganda

·       Portrayed pharaohs/regents + kings/queens as gods and goddesses to legitimise power – religion and politics was inseparable à justification of rule

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Egypt

Rome

Historical context – Agrippina the Younger

·       How is Agrippina represented in the sources?

·      What was Agrippina’s historical context?

·       The principate

o   After defeat of Marc Antony at Battle of Actium – between 27 and 23 BC Augustus established principate

o   For four decades, maintained Pax Romana throughout the empire by his power, authority, popularity, propaganda and reforms

o   Principate not hereditary – however Aug. hoped that a Julian would succeed him

o   All his preferred heirs however died, so it was his adopted son, Tiberius (a Claudian) who became emperor when Aug died in 14 AD.

o   Lives of the Julio-Claudians recorded in the ancient sources being marked by intrigue and violence, commonly associated with absence of accepted rule of succession within the imperial family, and growing importance of gaining support of Praetorian guard

·       Role of women

o   Upper-class and imperial women more emancipated than previously – many wealthy in own rights

o   Allowed to dispose of property as they liked

o   Could carry out legal transactions without being overseen by male relative (if they had three or more children, according to Augustan law) – so legally independent

o   From Aug’s time, imperial women were allowed to have the privileges (incl sacrosanctity) of a vestal virgin

·       Ideal roman woman

o   Virtuous

o   Loyal

o   Industrious wife

o   Devoted mother

o   Obedient to pater familias

o   If you were noble – educated! – so that you can educate children

§  Need to be able to weave, spin and read

o   Definitely no chance of official political role

o   Vestal virgin about as prestigious as could get

o   Ability to exercise power came through husbands or sons, or through status of other family members even though deceased

o   Despite being well educated, wealthy, aware of own status and in most cases having ear of husbands, women of Julio claudian dynasty under control of male relatives

o   Women thus creative to exert or influence power, all while facing attempts to curb ambitions (ranging from campaigns of attrition to executions or murder)

o   Ancient sources feared politically ambitious women – plotting and scheming

o   Prejudices of ancient sources makes it challenging to get a real sense of the political influence of the women of the Julio-claudian dynasty, and to what extent the narrative has been exaggerated in order to fit a stereotypical pattern

·       Early life

o   15 AD (year after death of Aug) to Germanicus, highly popular + charismatic military commander + adopted heir of new princeps Tib and A the elder, daughter of Jules

o   Born in Germany + spent earliest years in military camps w/ family

o   17 D, Ti sends G east on diplomatic mission where G became ill + died in Syria. Tacitus accuses governor, Piso, and wife Placentia of poisoning G on orders of Ti.

§  Explosion of grief – life stopped

§  Ae gaining public sympathy for herself + children – Tacitus – on public journey back to Rome with husband’s ashes, “cries of men and women, relatives and strangers blended into single universal groan”

§  Eventually Piso put on trial, few days in committed suicide – convenient? – 10 Dec 20 A.D.

§  Mass communication, Roman style – inscribed in bronze spreading message of inquiry

§  Marked start of bitter feud bwt Caligula’s mother, agrippina, and palace

§  Ay’s childhood coloured by feud between Ae + Ti

§  Convinced that A and her sons were plotting against him, Ti banished Ae to a remote island off the coast of Italy

§  Shortly afterwards, in 31 AD, summoned 19 y/o Caligula to Island of Capri in Bay of Naples – seat of Ti’s power away from Rome – here he ruled whole empire by proxy from a suite of imperial villas built into cliffs

§  Why was he here? Under surveillance? Ti just liked him? Groomed to be emperor, learn to start building like an emperor should?

§  Away from prying eyes, it was here that Ti schooled C in dark arts of tyranny and excess – stories told of what he got up to – all fantastical sex and violence

§  C’s time in his charge defined by remarkable brutality, much of which aimed at his own family

§  Mother beaten up during this – lost sight in one eye, went on hunger strike, force fed till finally starved to death – 33 AD

§  Both brothers came to violent ends –

§  He and sisters only ones left – closer to power, harder to survive

o   28 AD (13) – married to GDA – “in every aspect of life utterly detestable”

o   Cousin of A, being grandson of Aug’s sister Octavia, but family known for violence + cruelty

o   A’s aunt Julia died in exile

o   31 AD – Livilla (aunt) executed for role in death of husband

o   33 AD – Caligula = princeps

o   What would mean for A?

·      Agrippina’s role in imperial family

·       Family background and status – Tacitus – “pedigree was impeccable”

·       Descended from two noble and influential families, Julii and Claudii

·       This status, while giving access to political power and influence, put her at risk of political intrigue and violence – competition for power within imperial family = intense, family members often pitted against each other in order to gain advantage

·       Parents incredibly popular – basically “Prince William and Kate Middleton of their day” – Emma Southon

·       Descended from powerful women to which she is often compared to in ancient sources as well as powerful men –

o   Livia (great grandma):

§  Two sons, Tiberius + drusus with her cousin Tiberius Claudius Nero b4 marrying Augustus (their marriage = no children)

§  Aug relied on her intelligence, she had great deal of public influence over him (tho always appearing as trad wife in public)

§  Awarded many honours, incl title of ‘Augusta’ when husband died

§  Described by Tacitus as an obsessive murderer and ruthless manipulator who killed all those who stood in the way of Tiberius becoming princeps (incl killing Aug!)

§  Son Tib resented her influence and refused to carry out will

o   Julia (maternal grandma + only legitimate child of Aug)

§  Used by Aug as a political pawn to secure Julian succession

§  Married 3 times (incl to A’s grandfather, Agrippa, + produced 6 children)

§  “great intelligence and charisma” however life highly controlled by disapproving father

§  Accused of immorality and exiled from Rome

o   Agrippina the elder (daughter of Agrippa + Julia)

§  “golden couple of Julio-Claudian dynasty” w/ Germanicus

§  Headstrong, outspoken, arrogant – strong + competent Roman woman

§  Tacitus – “knew no feminine weaknesses. Intolerant of rivalry, thirsting for power, had a man’s preoccupations” à shows patriarchal view, priorities, stop at nothing

§  Made sure children understood birthright, particularly through her connection as last surviving grandchild of Aug

§  Died in exile

·      How did Agrippina gain and consolidate and eventually lose her power?

·       Ascendancy:

·       As a woman, could not attain emperorship herself – access to the position = through the men in her life – two alternatives were:

o   Marrying the emperor

o   Helping her son, Nero, to gain the principate (achieved both!)

·       Bachelorette – she could marry….

1.      Servius Supicius Galba

·       Member of a noble family (not related to imperial fam however)

·       Respected by Julio-Claudian (JC) emperors + held a series of public offices under Aug, Tib, C and Claudius

·       Completely bald + suffered a severe case of arthritis

·       Seized position of emp after Nero’s death but left no successor

·       Unpopular emp and less than a year after seizing position murdered on orders of Otho, becoming emp in his place

2.      Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus

·       Adopted by wealthy and childless Sallustius Crispus in 20 CE

·       Became v wealthy + generous patron himself

·       Known to be witty + adept w/ words

·       Friends w/ Ti, C, Claudius

·       Ex of Domitia Lepida (sister of A’s husband, Ahenobarbus)

·       Consul in AD 27 and 44 CE

·       Proconsul of Asia in 42-42 CE

3.      Tiberius Claudius Drusus

·       Son of Nero Drusus and Antonia Minor / the Younger

·       Physical deformity – made movement awkward + conversational speech slurred – overlooked by fam due to physical appearance

·       Spent time w/ friends, enjoying food, studying, writing history

·       Married a few times, quite a few children

·       Emp unexpectedly when older after assassination of nephew, thanks to backing of praetorian Guard

·       Using military force to gain power earned him hatred of senate

·       Very dependent as a result on his freedmen to help him run empire

§  Ahenobarbus

§  Crispus

§  Claudius

·       Princeps after C’s assassination – adopted Nero

o   Family connections

§  Gaining power when treated well by Caligula

§  Well known in her society and gifted w/ highest honours

§  Southon – “gaining first flickers of reflected spotlight” à starting to get taste of power

§  However started to lose power when sister Drusilla dead, C begins to descend into mental illness and privileges taken away until exile, humiliated and loses almost all power à marked end of short period of stability

o   Children

§  Nero – 37 AD, around time of C’s succession

§  Loss coming from that – death

o   Murder and manipulation

§  Involved in plot to kill brother? à C

§  Plot to kill Claudius

·       What is Agrippina’s legacy?

o   Nero

·       Why might Agrippina be described as a woman who dared?

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Key dates

Glossary