psych kms

1. Function of the placenta:

  • Provides nutrients, oxygen, and removes waste from the fetus. It also protects against certain infections and produces hormones necessary for pregnancy.

2. Indicators of puberty:

  • Boys: Enlargement of testes, deepening voice, growth of facial and body hair.

  • Girls: Breast development, menstruation, widening of hips.

  • Milestones: Girls typically begin puberty earlier (around 8-13 years), while boys begin around 9-14 years.

3. Temperament and its stability:

  • Temperament: A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

  • It can be stable across the lifespan, though it can evolve based on environment and experiences.

  • Testing it: Comparing temperament in siblings (especially fraternal twins) can help assess consistency.

4. Difference in sperm and egg production:

  • Sperm: Produced continuously after puberty (millions daily).

  • Eggs: Females are born with all their eggs (about 1-2 million) and release them over their lifespan (around 400-500 during ovulation).

5. Brain scans:

  • fMRI: Monitors brain activity by measuring blood flow, good for monitoring active brain regions.

  • MRI: Shows detailed structural images, no information on brain activity.

  • EEG: Records electrical activity in the brain, good for studying neural function.

  • CAT: Produces cross-sectional images, used for detecting brain injuries or structural abnormalities.

6. Erikson’s stages:

  • The stage focused on attachment is "Trust vs. Mistrust" (infancy), where attachment to caregivers is key.

7. Zygote, embryo, fetus:

  • Zygote: Fertilized egg (first 2 weeks).

  • Embryo: From implantation to the 8th week.

  • Fetus: 9th week until birth.

8. Parenting styles:

  • Authoritarian: Strict, high expectations with little warmth—leads to obedience but low self-esteem.

  • Authoritative: Balanced, warm, and firm—produces well-adjusted children.

  • Permissive: Lenient, few rules—can lead to poor impulse control.

9. Neurotransmitters in disorders:

  • Schizophrenia: Dopamine.

  • Alzheimer’s: Acetylcholine.

  • Parkinson’s: Dopamine.

10. Formal Operational Stage (Piaget):

  • Children begin to think abstractly, logically, and hypothetically (around age 12+).

11. PNS functions:

  • Sympathetic: Activates fight or flight.

  • Parasympathetic: Slows the body down (rest and digest).

12. Lobes of the brain:

  • Frontal: Decision-making, planning.

  • Parietal: Sensory processing.

  • Occipital: Visual processing.

  • Temporal: Auditory processing, memory.

13. Primary and secondary sexual characteristics:

  • Primary: Directly involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries, testes).

  • Secondary: Physical traits like body hair, voice change.

  • Testosterone: Develops male characteristics.

  • Estrogen: Develops female characteristics.

14. Stages by theorists:

  • Piaget: Cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational).

  • Erikson: Psychosocial development (Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, etc.).

  • Vygotsky: Sociocultural development (emphasizes social interaction).

  • Bronfenbrenner: Ecological systems theory (individual's development within nested environmental contexts).

15. Piaget’s egocentrism and conservation:

  • Egocentrism: Preoperational stage (children can't understand others' perspectives).

  • Conservation: Concrete Operational stage (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

16. Developmental psychology:

  • The study of how people grow and change over time (physically, mentally, emotionally).

17. Newborn’s favorite sound:

  • Newborns prefer the sound of their mother's voice, due to early exposure in the womb.

18. Infant abilities and preferences:

  • Newborns can recognize faces, prefer high-contrast patterns, and have reflexes like rooting and sucking.

19. Attachment styles:

  • Secure: Babies are distressed when caregivers leave but are comforted upon return.

  • Insecure: Babies show anxiety or avoidance of caregivers.

20. Teratogens:

  • Harmful agents (e.g., drugs, alcohol) that can cause birth defects or developmental issues.

21. Effects of smoking and drinking during pregnancy:

  • Smoking: Premature birth, low birth weight, respiratory issues.

  • Drinking: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), leading to developmental delays and physical abnormalities.

22. Gender roles:

  • Socially learned behaviors and expectations related to being male or female.

23. Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional studies:

  • Longitudinal: Studies the same individuals over a long period.

  • Cross-sectional: Studies different groups of people at one point in time.

24. Gender identity vs. gender:

  • Gender identity: A personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

  • Gender: Societal norms and roles associated with being male or female.

25. Continuity vs. Stage theories:

  • Continuity: Development is gradual and continuous.

  • Stage theories: Development occurs in distinct, discontinuous stages.

26. Theory of mind:

  • The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own.

27. Egocentrism:

  • Children in the preoperational stage believe everyone sees the world the way they do.

28. Research on parenting styles:

  • Diana Baumrind is associated with research on parenting styles.

29. Nature vs. Nurture debate:

  • Nature: Genetic factors.

  • Nurture: Environmental factors and experiences.

30. Gender role example:

  • A traditional example is a boy being encouraged to play sports and a girl being encouraged to play with dolls.

31. Hypothalamus and endocrine system:

  • The hypothalamus regulates hormones and the pituitary gland, affecting growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

32. Conservation and Piaget’s stages:

  • Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

  • Stage: Concrete Operational stage.

33. Genetically predisposed traits:

  • Traits that provide a reproductive advantage, such as certain behaviors or physical characteristics.

34. Genetic makeup of girls and boys:

  • Girls: XX chromosomes.

  • Boys: XY chromosomes.

35. Piaget’s stages and ages:

  • Sensorimotor: 0-2 years, object permanence.

  • Preoperational: 2-7 years, egocentrism.

  • Concrete Operational: 7-11 years, conservation.

  • Formal Operational: 12+ years, abstract thinking.

36. Effects of FAS:

  • Physical and cognitive impairments, such as facial abnormalities, developmental delays, and learning disabilities.

37. Erikson’s stages and ages:

  • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1).

  • Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18).

  • Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair (65+).

38. Speech-related brain structures:

  • Broca's Area: Produces speech.

  • Wernicke’s Area: Comprehends speech.

  • Mnemonic: “Broca’s produces” and “Wernicke’s understands.”

39. Habituation in infants:

  • A decrease in response to repeated stimuli, indicating learning.

40. Puberty onset:

  • Generally starts around ages 8-13 for girls and 9-14 for boys.

41. Neuron functions:

  • Dendrites: Receive signals.

  • Axon: Sends signals.

  • Cell body: Processes signals.

  • Mnemonic: "Dendrites receive, Axons send, Body processes."

42. Infant reflexes:

  • Rooting, sucking, grasping, and Moro (startle) reflex.

43. Brain development in adolescence:

  • The prefrontal cortex, responsible for decision-making, develops last.

44. Harlow’s research:

  • Found that infant monkeys preferred comfort (cloth mother) over nourishment (wire mother), showing the importance of emotional attachment.

45. Critical period and language:

  • The critical period is a window during early life when language development is most easily acquired. Missing it may result in language delays (e.g., feral children).

46. Assimilation and accommodation:

  • Assimilation: Integrating new info into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to fit new information.

47. Sexual orientation:

  • A person's enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others.

48. Stability of temperament:

  • Temperament can remain relatively stable, but it may also be influenced by environmental factors.

49. Schemas, assimilation, accommodation:

  • Schemas: Mental structures to organize knowledge.

  • Assimilation: Incorporating new info into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Modifying schemas to incorporate new info.

50. What babies like to look at:

  • Babies prefer faces and high-contrast patterns.

51. Genetics of twins:

  • Identical twins: Same egg, same genetic material (monozygotic).

  • Fraternal twins: Two separate eggs (dizygotic).

52. Relationship between abusers and abused:

  • Abused children are more likely to become abusers.

53. Brain plasticity:

  • The brain's ability to reorganize itself. Example: After a stroke, unaffected areas of the brain may take over lost functions.

54. Amygdala’s role:

  • Involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.

55. Low serotonin levels:

  • Linked to depression, anxiety, and impulsive behavior.

56. Object permanence:

  • The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen. Developed in Piaget's Sensorimotor stage.