The Birth of Pakistan: A Definitive Study Guide to Chapter Nine

The Government of India Act 1935

• Background and Significance: The British government passed the Government of India Act in 1935, signifying an agreement that the Indian subcontinent should transition toward having its own government.
• Structure of Government: The act proposed a federation of provinces, where each province would have its own local government.
• Power Distribution: While Indians were granted more control over their governance, the central power was strictly retained by the British.
• Rejection by the Muslim League: Muslims rejected the act because it did not provide autonomous power to the Muslims within the provinces.
• Rejection by the Congress: The Indian National Congress rejected the act because they demanded absolute self-rule for India by Indians themselves.
• Historical Legacy: Despite being rejected by major parties, the act became law and later served as the basis for the subsequent constitutions of both India and Pakistan after gaining independence.

Reorganization of the Muslim League

• Internal Division: In the early 1930s, the Muslim League was fractured into two distinct factions: the Hittite League and the Aziz League.
• Jinnah’s Leadership: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah recognized the urgent need to reorganize the party following the setbacks experienced during the 1937 elections.
• Unification: Jinnah worked to reunite the two factions and was elected as the President of the League. Under his leadership, the party was restructured to function as a more efficient political tool.
• Administrative Reforms:
  • Membership Fees: To make the party accessible to Muslims from all socioeconomic backgrounds, the membership fee was drastically reduced from $4\, \text{rupees}$ to $2\, \text{anas}$ (which is $1/8^{\text{th}}$ of a rupee).
  • Organisational Structure: Central and provincial parliamentary boards were established to streamline administration.
  • Constitutional Clarity: A formal constitution for the party was drafted and clearly outlined.
  • Discipline: The Muslim League National Guards were introduced to maintain order and discipline during party sessions.
  • Finances: Jinnah called for donations from the South Asian Muslim community to strengthen the party's financial standing, successfully collecting a total of $1,000,000\, \text{rupees}$.

The 1937 Provincial Elections and the "Congress Raj"

• Election Outcome: Provincial elections were held in 1937 under the framework of the 1935 Act. The Congress won a significant majority of seats in many provinces compared to the Muslim League.
• The Congress Raj: The period of Congress rule was labeled "Congress Raj" by critics who felt the government was no better than British rule.
• Cultural Imposition: During this time, steps were taken to impose Hindu culture and religion, which Muslims felt endangered their own religious beliefs, cultures, and interests.
• Shift in Membership: As the Congress became more powerful and Muslim grievances intensified, Muslims began joining the Muslim League in large numbers to ensure their voices were heard.

The Pirpur Report (1938)

• Purpose: After experiencing harassment during the Congress rule, the Muslim League prepared the Pirpur Report in 1938.
• Content: The report documented specific examples of anti-Muslim and pro-Hindu sentiments in provinces ruled by the Congress.
• Historical Importance: This document became a critical piece of evidence used to justify the eventual demand for the partition of the country.

The Day of Deliverance (1939)

• Context: In 1939, the British government declared that India would fight against Germany in World War II without consulting Indian leaders.
• Congress Protest: Congress ministers resigned from their positions in protest of the British decision to enter the war without consultation.
• Muslim Reaction: The resignation of the Congress ministries brought great relief to the Muslim community.
• Declaration: Jinnah declared December 22, 1939, as the "Day of Deliverance" from the perceived tyranny of the Congress rule.
• Political Shift: Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement and the mass resignation of Congress ministers distanced the British from the Congress. In contrast, it improved the relationship between the British and the Muslim League, as Jinnah assured the Viceroy of Muslim support during the war.

Role of Muslim Women and Students

• Women's Subcommittee: In 1938, the Muslim League launched the All India Muslim Women's Subcommittee to facilitate political awakening and include women in the freedom movement.
• Active Participation: Women joined the party by the thousands, participating in street politics and traveling to remote areas to mobilize support.
• Student Involvement: Students played vital social, journalistic, and intellectual roles in promoting the idea of a separate state.
• Growth: In 1942 alone, schools and colleges were heavily engaged, with over $1,000$ new members enrolling in the party within just a few months.

The Pakistan Resolution (Lahore Resolution)

• Context: Following the Day of Deliverance, Jinnah aimed to establish the Muslim League as the sole representative party for all Muslims in India.
• The Meeting: A landmark session was held on March 23, 1940, in Lahore.
• Authorship and Presentation: The resolution was written by Mohammed Zafirullah Khan and presented by A.K. Fazlul Huq.
• Core Demand: It demanded the creation of a separate, independent state for Muslims in India comprised of contiguous Muslim-majority geographic regions.
• Unanimous Agreement: All attendees at the meeting agreed with the resolution. By this time, the name "Pakistan" was already being used to describe the proposed Muslim state.
• Impact: The resolution officially rejected the Government of India Act 1935 and paved the way for the partition in 1947.

The Cripps Mission and the Quit India Movement

• The Cripps Mission: The British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to resolve Hindu-Muslim differences. He offered "dominion status" with a new constitution after the war, but Congress rejected it, demanding an immediate transfer of absolute power.
• Quit India Movement (1942): Gandhi launched this campaign demanding the British leave India immediately. Although intended to be non-violent, it turned violent, resulting in over $1,000$ deaths. Leaders like Gandhi and Nehru were imprisoned.

Jinnah-Gandhi Talks (1944)

• The Meeting: After being released from prison, Gandhi requested a meeting with Jinnah to discuss the future of the subcontinent.
• The Two-Nation Theory: Jinnah explained the theory that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations. Gandhi refused to accept this, insisting India was one nation.
• Gandhi’s Proposal: Gandhi suggested that if a separate state were to be formed, it should only happen after India gained independence from the British. Jinnah refused this arrangement, fearing Muslims would be left at the mercy of a Hindu majority.

Post-War Elections and the Cabinet Mission Plan

• Political Change in Britain: After WWII ended in 1945, the Labour Party, led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, replaced Winston Churchill. The Labour Party supported Indian independence but initially opposed partition.
• 1945-1946 Elections:
  • Congress won $90\%$ of the total seats.
  • The Muslim League won $90\%$ of the Muslim votes across India, proving that the majority of Muslims supported the League and the demand for Pakistan.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946):
  • British members: Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.B. Alexander.
  • Proposal: An independent but united federation.
  • Outcome: Outrightly rejected by both the Congress and the Muslim League.

Direct Action Day

• Purpose: In 1946, Jinnah feared that the Congress and the British would unite to block the creation of Pakistan.
• The Event: He called for peaceful marches on August 16, 1946, to demonstrate the Muslim demand for an independent state.
• The Outcome: While most marches were peaceful, severe fighting broke out in Calcutta, where more than $4,000$ people were killed.

The End of British Rule and the Indian Independence Act

• Withdrawal Announcement: On February 20, 1947, Clement Attlee announced that Britain would leave India by June 1948.
• Mountbatten’s Appointment: Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the final Viceroy to oversee the transfer of power.
• Civil Unrest: In March 1947, significant riots occurred in Lahore and Amritsar. The Sikh community in these cities called for their own separate state, and violence spread to other regions like Bengal.
• The Indian Independence Act 1947:
  • Passed by British Parliament in July 1947; effective August 1947.
  • Divided the subcontinent into two independent dominion states: India and Pakistan, effective August 15, 1947.
  • Established two separate constituent assemblies to draft constitutions.
  • Provided that princely states could join either country or remain independent.

The Radcliffe Commission and Partition

• The Boundary Commissions: Two commissions, headed by British judge Sir Cyril Radcliffe, were established to determine the boundaries in Punjab and Bengal.
• The Announcement: The results were not announced by Lord Mountbatten until August 17, 1947.
• Controversial Results: Jinnah and the League described the boundaries as "wrong and unjust."
  • Muslim-majority areas, such as Gurdaspur, were given to India, providing India access to Kashmir.
  • Vital canal headworks for irrigation in Pakistan were also awarded to India.
• Final Leadership: Lord Mountbatten wanted to be the Governor-General of both countries, but Jinnah refused, becoming the Governor-General of Pakistan himself.
• The Great Migration: Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947. Millions migrated across the borders. Clashes between Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs, combined with hunger and exhaustion, led to an estimated death toll of at least half a million ($500,000$) people.