How was Germany Unified?

Syllabus

• Timeline of German Nationalism (1806-1871)
• Maps: Central Europe and the ‘German Confederation’ 1815-1866
• Chapter 1 (Part 1): German Nationalism
• Chapter 1 (Part 2): German Nationalism - Economic Developments
• Chapter 2: Why was Germany not unified 1848-50?
• Chapter 3: How did Bismarck bring about Austria’s defeat in 1866?
• Chapter 4: The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification (1870-1871)
• Chapter 5: Bismarck and his role in the Unification of Germany

Timeline of German Nationalism (1806-1871)

• Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (Aug 6, 1806)
  • Key People: Emperor Francis II, Napoleon
  • Action: Abdication leads to power vacuum.
  • Significance: Ignites nationalist sentiments against French domination.
• Addresses to the German Nation (Oct 1806 - Jun 1807)
  • Key People: Johann Gottlieb Fichte
  • Action: Advocacy for national education system
  • Significance: Foundational for German nationalism
• Battle of Leipzig (Oct 16-19, 1813)
  • Key People: Coalition forces, German states
  • Action: Defeat of Napoleon
  • Significance: Symbolizes German liberation and unity
• Formation of the German Confederation (Jun 9, 1815)
  • Key People: Congress of Vienna
  • Action: Creation of a loose political federation
  • Significance: Falls short of actual unification
• Wartburg Festival (Oct 18-19, 1817)
  • Key People: Student associations (Burschenschaften)
  • Action: Gathering and book burnings
  • Significance: Vital expression of nationalism
• Assassination of August von Kotzebue (Mar 23, 1819)
  • Key People: Karl Sand, nationalist students
  • Action: Leads to Carlsbad Decrees
  • Significance: Suppresses nationalist groups but strengthens underground
• Hambach Festival (May 27, 1832)
  • Key People: Nationalists, public
  • Action: Mass demonstration advocating unity and democracy
  • Significance: Significant event for the nationalist movement
• Establishment of the Zollverein (Jan 1, 1834)
  • Key People: Various German states, Prussia
  • Action: Fosters economic integration
  • Significance: Enhances Prussian influence
• March Revolution (Mar 18, 1848)
  • Key People: Frederick William IV, Berlin populace
  • Action: Promises for constitutional reforms
  • Significance: Compels support for German unification
• Frankfurt Parliament (May 18, 1848)
  • Key People: Elected representatives
  • Action: First all-German parliament seeking unification
  • Significance: Representative democracy aimed at unification
• Rejection of the German Imperial Crown (Mar 28 - Apr 3, 1849)
  • Key People: Frankfurt Parliament, Frederick William IV
  • Action: Crown offered and rejected
  • Significance: Undermines liberal nationalism
• Olmütz Punctation (Nov 29, 1850)
  • Key People: Prussia, Austria
  • Action: Concession by Prussia to Austria
  • Significance: Halts hopes for Prussian-led unification
• Bismarck appointed Minister President (Sep 23, 1862)
  • Key People: Otto von Bismarck
  • Action: Initiates "blood and iron" policy
  • Significance: Marks beginning of serious unification efforts
• Gastein Convention (Jun 1, 1865)
  • Key People: Prussia, Austria
  • Action: Joint administration of Schleswig-Holstein
  • Significance: Foreshadows future conflict
• Austro-Prussian War (Jun 14, 1866)
  • Key People: Prussia, Austria
  • Action: Start of the war
  • Significance: Establishes Prussian dominance
• Battle of Königgrätz (Jul 3, 1866)
  • Key People: Prussia, Austria
  • Action: Prussian victory
  • Significance: Ends Austrian influence over German states
• Formation of the North German Confederation (Jul 1, 1867)
  • Key People: Prussia, German states
  • Action: Formation under Prussian leadership
  • Significance: Lays groundwork for German Empire
• Franco-Prussian War begins (Jul 19, 1870)
  • Key People: France, Prussia
  • Action: Declaration of war
  • Significance: Aids Bismarck in uniting southern states with Prussia
• Proclamation of the German Empire (Jan 18, 1871)
  • Key People: Wilhelm I, German states
  • Action: Empire proclaimed at Versailles
  • Significance: Culmination of the nationalist movement and unification

Chapter 1: German Nationalism

• 1815-1848: Vormärz Period
  • The period between the Congress of Vienna and the revolutions in March 1848 is termed the 'Vormärz period' which means "before March".
  • Emergence of the German Confederation in 1815 without a true German national state after the fall of Napoleon.
  • Liberal and nationalist ideas simmered, especially among the bourgeoisie and university circles.
  • German princes, influenced by Austrian Chancellor Clemens von Metternich, used the Confederation to suppress nationalist and democratic movements。
• Origins of German Nationalism
  • German nationalism began in the late 18th century, fueled by the Enlightenment and Romanticism.
  • Thinkers like Johann Gottfried Herder and Ernst Moritz Arndt urged Germans to find unity in shared language and cultural heritage.
  • Friedrich Schiller's writings celebrated common history, emphasizing freedom and identity.
  • Napoleonic Wars strengthened German nationalist sentiments as resistance against foreign control fostered unity among the diverse German states.
  • Johann Gottlieb Fichte, in his ‘Addresses to the German Nation’ (1807/08), interpreted “Germanness” as a philosophical state with a drive toward freedom and a liberal state, but not necessarily a single German nation-state.
• The German Confederation
  • The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) reorganized Europe and created the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose grouping of 39 states
  • It was intended to maintain stability, it also kept the flame of national unity alive.
  • The member states remained sovereign but were bound by the Confederation's majority decisions.
  • A parliament was established in Frankfurt am Main, chaired by Austria.
  • Prussia and Austria were the dominant powers, but only parts of their territories were included.
  • Prussia expanded by acquiring portions of Saxony and territories in the Rhineland and Westphalia.
  • Austria lost the Habsburg Netherlands (modern Belgium) but gained territories in Italy and Eastern Europe.
  • Monarchs from Great Britain, Denmark, and the Netherlands were part of the Confederation due to personal unions with the Kingdom of Hanover, the Duchy of Holstein, and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.
  • Other member states included Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, and various grand duchies and free cities.
• The Development of German Nationalism
  • After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, nationalism was primarily confined to a small part of the middle class.
  • Student societies campaigned for a unified Germany and the abolition of conservative absolutist monarchies.
  • Nationalism was weakened by its connection to liberalism.
  • In October 1817, 700 nationalist students and lecturers transformed the Wartburg Festival into a significant demonstration of German Nationalism.
  • The festival, originally celebrating the 300th anniversary of Martin Luther’s ‘Ninety-five Theses’ and the fourth anniversary of the victory over Napoleon's Grande Armée at Leipzig, became a platform to express dissent against foreign authority and xenophobia.
  • The students united 14 student associations into one ‘Burschenschaft’, preserving a significant form of German Nationalism, and were prominent in the Hambach Festival of 1832 and the ‘March Revolution’ of 1848.
  • Metternich requested universities be placed under close supervision.
• The Carlsbad Decrees
  • On March 23, 1819, Karl Ludwig Sand murdered conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue.
  • Sand was a member of the Urburschenschaft student society, reflecting nationalist ideas after the Napoleonic wars, with the motto: "Ehre, Freiheit, Vaterland".
  • Sand was executed, and Kotzebue's murder prompted the Carlsbad Decrees.
  • The decrees imposed strict censorship, surveillance, and repressive measures to stifle opposition.
  • Carlsbad Decrees included:
    • Inspectors for universities (resisted by many states)
    • Shut down student societies
    • Threatened to remove radical nationalist and/or democratic lecturers
    • Censorship of the press
    • Established a commission to investigate ‘revolutionary movements’
    • Allowed the Confederation to intervene in any state that refused to implement these measures, or which was judged to have been threatened by revolution.
  • The imposition of the Decrees varied among the states; Prussia and Austria dismissed professors and imprisoned radical student leaders.
  • Metternich attempted to revoke progressive constitutions in Southern German states but faced opposition.
• External Events
  • The July Revolution in Paris and the Polish Uprising in the early 1830s reawakened the spirit of nationalism.
  • Protests against political repression and unfair economic conditions across German states compelled some ruling dynasties to concede constitutional and civil rights.
• German Liberalism
  • The Hambach Festival on May 27th 1832, saw approximately 30,000 people rallying for a democratic German nation-state.
    • Led by the Burschenschaft, demanded a democratic German nation-state calling for constitutional reforms.
  • Metternich passed the ‘Six Articles’ in June 1832, banning all political meetings and setting up strict supervision of Universities.
  • The Ten Articles of July 5, 1832, forbade political organizations, meetings, appeals, and festivals.
  • Developments in the 1830s and 1840s:
    • A small number of radicals stormed the Frankfurt Diet and declared a German Republic in 1833.
    • Industrial wealth saw the development of ambitious liberal leaders entering the political elite, such as Camphausen and Hansemann.
    • Radicals and moderates were strong enough in number to draw up rival political programmes, at Offenburg and Heppenheim respectively.
    • Prussia’s new King from 1840, Frederick William IV aspired to a liberal reputation.
      • Appointed liberal ministers and relaxed press censorship.
      • Appointed a ‘United Diet’ of Prussian provinces, only to abolish it after a few weeks.
  • The Industrial Revolution introduced sweeping economic and social changes, fueling nationalism further.
  • The rising middle class and working populations saw unification as a key to greater economic opportunities and political power.
  • The creation of a free trade customs union, known as the Zollverein, in 1834.

Chapter 2: German Nationalism - Economic Developments

• Origins of Zollverein
  • The Zollverein, or Prussian Customs Union, was established in 1834.
  • Few liberal-nationalists would have predicted that political unification in Germany would ultimately be led by Prussia.
  • Before 1840, Prussia set an important foundation for German unification through the establishment of the Zollverein.
  • The customs union played a crucial role in fostering economic integration, which later contributed to the broader political unification of Germany.
  • The Zollverein was established because the economic fragmentation of the German states, meant that they were burdened by varying tariffs and trade barriers which hindered trade stifling economic growth.
• Developments of Zollverein
  • By 1830 there were two other customs unions.
    • One was between Bavaria and Württemberg.
    • the other was known as the Middle German Commercial Union – or Middle Union - made up of Hanover, Brunswick, Saxony and several smaller states.
      • Hesse-Cassel, a vital member of the Middle Union, which encountered financial difficulties and revolutionary upheaval in 1831 joined the Prussian Customs Union, leading to the collapse of the already struggling Middle Union while the Prussian Customs Union continued to gain strength.
  • By 1834, Bavaria and Württemberg joined the Zollverein, expanding it to encompass 18 states with a population of 23 million.
  • By 1836, when Baden and Frankfurt joined, the number of participating states rose to 25, covering approximately 26 million people.
  • Only Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, the Hanseatic towns, and Austria remained outside the union by 1844.
  • The initial members of the Zollverein included Prussia and several smaller German states, motivated by a desire to enhance economic power and stability.
  • Member states sought to benefit from the removal of internal tariffs, gain access to broader markets, and foster economic collaboration.
  • Management of the Zollverein was carried out by a specially appointed body known as the Zollverein Congress.
  • All member states operated under a common tariff system and abolished internal customs barriers.
  • Initial efforts were made to unify currency and standardize weights and measures among the Zollverein states.
• Railroads
  • Economic integration spurred significant growth, with trade volumes rising dramatically as goods moved more freely across borders.
  • The Zollverein fostered investments in critical infrastructure, such as railroads, which laid the foundation for industrial growth.
  • Road construction programs initiated by Napoleon continued, but the arrival of railways proved to be the most crucial advancement for the country’s transportation infrastructure.
  • German economist Friedrich List famously referred to the railways and the Customs Union as "Siamese Twins," underscoring their vital relationship.
  • The first railway in Germany, built in 1835, connected Nuremberg and Fürth and spanned only six kilometres.
  • By 1839, the Leipzig-Dresden railway line was operational, and by 1840, a total of 462 kilometres of track had been laid.
  • The 1840s saw rapid expansion, with around 1,100 kilometres of track added in 1846 alone.
  • Effects of the railway were immediate and transformative.
    • Raw materials could be transported quickly and efficiently throughout the Ruhr Valley without the need for unloading and reloading.
    • Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and facilitating commerce.
  • While inland shipping initially carried three times more freight than railroads in 1850, by 1870, the situation had reversed, with railroads transporting four times more freight.
  • Rail travel altered urban landscapes and influenced how people moved across the country, impacting all levels of society, from the upper classes to the working population.
  • By 1865, most of the population, including key manufacturing and production centres, were linked to the growing rail network.
• Significance: impact of the Zollverein
  • Beyond its economic impact, the Zollverein had profound political implications.
  • Member states began to see the tangible benefits of working together, a growing sense of national identity emerged.
  • The customs union acted as a unifying force, gradually transforming regional interests into a collective German consciousness.
  • This shift towards unity was particularly significant during a time when nationalist sentiments were rising, leading to a broader movement for unification among the German states.
  • The Zollverein served as a precursor to these unification efforts, setting the stage for political alliances that ultimately culminated in the establishment of a unified Germany in 1871.
  • It also helped to partially resolve the “German Question” which provided two possible avenues for a future German state:
    • The Großdeutsche Lösung "Greater German solution" proposed unifying all German-speaking lands under one state, led by the Habsburgs. This was supported by the Austrian Empire.
    • The Kleindeutsche Lösung "Lesser (or small) German solution" proposed unifying only the northern German states, excluding Austria. This was supported by the Kingdom of Prussia.
  • Successive Prussian finance ministers recognised that eliminating internal customs duties would promote trade and prosperity, essential for a rising economic power.
  • It was noted that such a free trade organisation would not only encourage economic prosperity but also politically isolate Austria. This isolation would ultimately weaken Austria's influence within the confederation and pave the way for Prussia to emerge as a natural leader for a unified Kleindeutsche Lösung, excluding Austria.
  • The Zollverein was significant in multiple ways:
    • Economically, it established a framework for regional cooperation that would influence future policies in Germany.
    • It demonstrated how collective economic interests could foster unity and collaboration, which became vital as Germany sought to position itself within a rapidly changing European landscape.
    • It laid the groundwork for a more interconnected German state, enhancing economic resilience and stability.
    • It stimulated trade and industrial growth and helped to foster a sense of shared identity.
    • The customs union became a critical stepping stone toward the eventual political unification of Germany, illustrating the powerful interplay between economic interests and national identity.

Chapter 3: Why was Germany not unified 1848-50?

• The 1848 Revolution in Prussia
  • Europe, 1848 was a year of dramatic events.
  • Cholera epidemic swept across Europe
  • Karl Marx’s the Communist Manifesto was published.
  • In the spring of 1848, revolutionaries seemed to carry all before them across Europe.
• Causes of the Revolution
  • Economic reasons:
    • Three years of harvest failures before 1848 had devastating cumulative effects on the rural population. Peasants could no longer afford their rents, while food prices doubled.
    • The rural economy began to collapse, with local crafts suffering.
    • Situation worsened in 1847 when the business cycle experienced a significant downturn, causing substantial damage to Prussian markets. Banks came under intense pressure, leading them to call in credits.
    • As markets collapsed, unemployment became a widespread problem.
  • Social unrest
    • Intensified as economic hardships combined with long-standing social grievances, including the continued burden of feudal privileges and the peasants' exclusion from common woodlands and hunting grounds.
  • Political causes:
    • The psychological impact of the economic double crisis was immense.
    • The failure of authorities to deal with the problems raised caused major disquiet and brought their legitimacy into question.
    • The 1847 Silesian ‘hunger-typhus’ an example of this.
    • The Prussian government tried to conceal the extent of life lost and at no point considered ending grain exports.
  • The population remained embittered but emboldened.
  • Reform hopes had been building for some time in various parts of Germany, even in Prussia.
  • Frederick William IV had decided, against the advice of Metternich, to allow Prussia's 8 provincial estates to meet in Berlin as a ‘United Estates’.
  • Inspired liberals across Germany and enabled liberals from across North Germany to meet together for the first time.
  • International:
    • News from the conservative defeat in the Swiss civil war in late 1847, revolutionary Italy in January 1848, and then from revolutionary France with King Louis Philippe fleeing in February 1848, helped to spark the German crisis into a full-blown revolution.
    • All over Germany crowds formed in big cities.
    • Peasants were increasingly forced into urban areas because they could not actually afford to buy the land that they now (following the end of feudalism) technically had a right to and gathered in large numbers, drawing up demands outside parliaments.
    • Basserman, the Lower House Majority Leader in Baden called for a German parliament.
• The Frankfurt Parliament, 1848-49
  • The Vorparliament
    • The ‘Pre-Parliament’, known as the ‘Vorparliament’, met on the 31st March in Frankfurt at Saint Paul's Church.
    • It consisted of local estates together with other prominent liberals summoned by the Committee of Seven. Most of the 521 members were from South and West Germany.
    • All agreed that elections to the national parliament should be by universal suffrage, but the moderates wanted that parliament to work with princes.
    • Some 150 radicals, led by Struve and Hecker, wished for abolition of hereditary power and monarchy and a US style federal republican constitution.
    • After Struve failed to convince the Vorparliament to pursue such a course Hecker proclaimed a German Republic in Baden on the 12th April.
    • His followers and 1000 peasants armed with scythes were dispersed within a week by 30,000 Confederation troops.
    • The putting down of what contemporaries called the ‘Hecker Putsch’ showed authority still rested with the elites and convinced the moderates that a junior partnership with the elites was the sensible aim.
  • The Frankfurt Parliament
    • May was the crucial month when elections were held across Germany to the new State and National Assemblies.
    • All independent males could vote, although in many places this was heavily watered down by indirect electoral systems.
    • Some 436 of the 812 representatives were state employees; It was dominated by state educated officials and lawyers.
    • The main questions the Frankfurt Parliament faced:
      • What was the ‘Germany’ that it claimed sovereignty over? What territories did this include?
      • What was to be its constitution? What were the rights of its citizens? this was very important because this was the main thrust of all the revolutionary complaints.
      • What was the relationship with between the Frankfurt parliament and the German princes particularly Prussia and Austria going to be? Should there be full parliamentary sovereignty?
      • Should there be free trade or protectionism within Germany?
• The Frankfurt executive
  • The politics at Frankfurt was of consensus but it was a centre right consensus with most of the liberals being state employees or nobles.
  • After failing to agree on establishing a central provisional government the Frankfurt parliament established a provisional executive invited the Archduke Hapsburg Johann (Emperor Ferdinand's brother) to be its imperial administrator or ‘Reichsverweser’.
  • The states felt obliged to accept this appointment and a German government was formed
  • The federal Diet handed its functions over to Archduke Johann, but his government had no civil service and no tax income. It was totally reliant on state contributions.
  • Although it generally had access to the confederation troops neither Prussia nor Austria allowed its troops to swear allegiance to Archduke John.
• Relations with other states
  • The lack of the Frankfurt Parliament’s control over the actions of other states was laid bare by the Schleswig-Holstein issue.
  • Revolution had spread to Denmark and the new ‘Eider Dane’ Danish nationalist government in Copenhagen wished to absorb all of Schleswig as far as the river Eider
  • Prussian troops were mobilised and entered the territory in April under the command of General Wrangel to drive the Danes out of South Jutland.
  • Danish blockades on Hanseatic ports and international condemnation were hurting Prussia and so Frederick William withdrew his troops.
  • The Frankfurt parliament demanded that Prussia continue energetically but Wrangel instead signed the Treaty of Malmo on 26th August 1848.
  • This Lack of real power for the Frankfurt parliament.
• The Frankfurt Constitution
  • the Frankfurt parliament failed to seize the initiative in the summer.
  • The concessions by conservatives across the German states encouraged more radical demands and so the moderate constitutional rights that the Frankfurt parliament was casting were no longer what many working-class Germans desired.
  • Popular impatience led to a series of local uprisings and the parliament’s executive used Confederation troops to put them down.
  • Lost popular support and were considered as repressive as the old regime that it had replaced.
  • The conservative old regimes gained in confidence: the popular vote swinging away from Frankfurt, but Frankfurt clearly had no strength of its own.
• Counter-revolution in the German states
  • The resurgence of old elites grew incrementally across the summer and autumn: the middle classes, including revolutionary civil guards, drifted to the forces of law and order; peasants quickly satisfied by the abolition of feudal dues drifted back to support the status quo .
  • The old elites sensed the tide was turning and deliberately stalled elections until the end of the year in Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover, or exploited moderate fear by avoiding them altogether, such as in Baden.
  • The state regimes grew the state paper money supply reducing unemployment and violence.
  • As the new ministries fell back on traditional law and order techniques their unpopularity grew.
• Counter-Revolution in Prussia and Austria
  • The Habsburg Empire had been on the verge of disintegration in mid-1848: Italians, Czechs and Hungarians had all revolted from late May.
  • The army crushed the regional uprisings, such as by Windischgratz in Prague (June), Radetsky in Milan (July), while Croat Jellacic invaded Hungary.
  • Robert Blum, a left-wing representative of the Frankfurt parliament present in Vienna, was executed.
  • The army crushed a Polish uprising in Posen and General Wrangel was named supreme commander in Berlin. The army's shadow loomed large.
  • The coup came in November: Count Brandenburg was named Prime Minister on 1st November 1848; and on 10th November General Wrangel entered Berlin with 80,000 troops. The old regime had taken a clear step towards restoration.
• The end of the Frankfurt parliament
  • The recovery of conservatives in Austria and the defeat of nationalist revolts in Prague and Italy in 1848 meant that, by 1849, the Austrian government was firmly opposed to nationalism.
  • The Frankfurt Parliament offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV of Prussia, as he was the only other German prince powerful enough to wear it, but he refused.
  • Austrian and Prussian delegates abandoned the Frankfurt Parliament, and other conservative and moderate delegates from other German states soon followed.
  • Uprisings in May in Dresden and Baden were put down by Prussian troopsm, and the rump of the Frankfurt Parliament was dissolved in June 1849.
  • In both Prussia and Austria the real power of the army existed in conjunction with flexible post-revolutionary conservatism.
• The failure of German unification in 1848-1850 was the result of several key factors:
  • First, there was significant tension between competing visions of German unification.
    • Liberal nationalists who met at the Frankfurt Parliament wanted a constitutional monarchy under Prussian leadership that would include Austria (known as "Greater Germany" or Großdeutschland).
    • However, they faced opposition from those who wanted a "Smaller Germany" (Kleindeutschland) excluding Austria. This fundamental disagreement weakened the unification movement.
• The Frankfurt Parliament, despite its ultimate failure, did achieve some notable successes:
  • It drafted the Frankfurt Constitution, which outlined fundamental rights (Grundrechte) including freedom of the press, equality before the law, and religious freedom.
  • The parliament also successfully created a provisional central authority under Archduke Johann of Austria as Imperial Regent (Reichsverweser).
  • However, its critical failures were numerous: it spent too much time on theoretical debates, lacked an army or bureaucracy to implement its decisions, failed to resolve the Austrian question definitively
  • Ultimately it could not convince Friedrich Wilhelm IV to accept the imperial crown when offered in March 1849, stating he ‘would not accept a crown from the gutter’.
• Austrian resurgence: the Punctation of Olmutz (1850)
  • At first, the events of 1848-49 strengthened Prussia’s position in its rivalry with Austria:
    • The active role of Prussian troops in defence of German interests in Schleswig-Holstein, and against the radicalism of the Frankfurt Parliament, meant that its prestige had grown amongst conservative German circles.
    • The Austrians were preoccupied with securing control over the rebellious non-German peoples of its multi-ethnic empire.
  • Seizing the moment, Prussia attempted to create its own version of a unified Germany through the Erfurt Union (1849-1850).
    • This was a conservative project that would have united Germany under Prussian leadership while excluding Austria. The Union managed to gain support from 26 German states and even convened its own parliament in Erfurt in March 1850. It met for little over a month before the union began to break down as it became clear that many German princes supported Austria.
  • Austria was able to resurrect the German Confederation, which met in Frankfurt forcing Prussia to end the Erfurt Union project.
  • The Punctation of Olmutz, was a humiliation for Prussia:
    • the Erfurt Union was abolished
    • the Confederation was officially re-established
    • Prussia was not to challenge Austrian leadership
    • the Confederation was to solve the problem in Hesse-Cassel
  • Austria continued to oppose unification of the German states, and Prussia abandoned its efforts to lead Germany for a decade and a half.

Chapter 4: How did Bismarck bring about Austria’s defeat in 1866?

• Following the Punctation of Olmutz, Prussia temporarily withdrew from any attempt to push for greater unification, instead undergoing a decade-long process of administrative and military reform.
• Otto von Bismark, and a decline in Austria’s international position set the scene for a clash between the two powers that would result in Prussia supplanting Austria as the leading German state.
• Prussian consolidation
  • Otto von Manteuffel, who served as Prussia's Minister President from 1850 to 1858, proved crucial in maintaining Prussia's conservative character.
  • He prioritized preserving the existing social and political order over national unification. He strengthened Prussia's bureaucratic administration, supported conservative interests, maintained a cautious foreign policy that avoided direct confrontation with Austria, and worked to suppress liberal and democratic movements within Prussia.
  • Conservative forces generally prevailed across Germany by 1849.
  • The immediate pressure for unification faded.
• The emergence of Bismarck
  • Otto von Bismarck's emergence as a dominant figure in Prussian politics began with his election to the Prussian United Diet (parliament) in 1847.
  • During the revolutionary period of 1848, he established himself as a staunchly anti-liberal force, actively participating in counter-revolutionary activities.
  • Bismarck's early political career was marked by his defense of Frederick William's capitulation to Austria at Olmütz in December 1850.
  • His strategic thinking led to his appointment as Prussian envoy to the reinstated Bundestag in Frankfurt, a position he held until 1859.
  • During his Frankfurt years, Bismarck's political outlook underwent a significant transformation.
  • By the early 1860s, Bismarck had cultivated a reputation as a formidable political figure.
  • Bismarck's fundamental objective was not German unification per se, but rather Prussian dominance over Northern Germany, initially distrusting liberal nationalists.
  • Central to Bismarck's political philosophy was his commitment to Realpolitik and his conviction that power, not principle, determined historical outcomes.
  • Though his unorthodox methods generated tension with King Wilhelm I , Bismarck's political acumen commanded widespread respect.
• The Road to War: Austrian-Prussian Relations and the Schleswig-Holstein Crisis, 1862-1866
  • The deterioration of Austrian-Prussian relations in the early 1860s marked a crucial turning point in German history.
  • In December 1862, Bismarck demanded recognition of Prussia as an equal partner in German affairs.
  • By 1863, disagreement over Germany's future development had become apparent.
  • The Polish Revolt of 1863 provided Bismarck with his first opportunity to demonstrate his diplomatic acumen, aligning Prussia with Russia by offering military assistance.
  • This ensured Russian neutrality in future conflicts between Prussia and Austria.
  • The Schleswig-Holstein crisis of 1863-1864 presented Bismarck with another crucial diplomatic opportunity.
    • German nationalists rallied behind the Duke of Augustenburg's claim to both duchies, leading smaller German states to send troops into Holstein.
    • The resulting Austro-Prussian military campaign against Denmark in 1864 proved successful, culminating in the Treaty of Vienna that October. The treaty placed both duchies under joint Austro-Prussian administration.
  • The Convention of Gastein in August 1865 attempted to resolve the mounting friction between Austria and Prussia by dividing administrative responsibilities.
  • Bismarck worked to strengthen Prussia's diplomatic position culminating in his meeting with Napoleon III at Biarritz.
  • By early 1866, the path to war became increasingly clear.
  • Bismarck systematically prepared for war, securing an alliance with Italy in April 1866.
  • The final progression toward war accelerated in June 1866 when Austria referred the duchy question to the Bundestag, prompting Prussian military occupation of Holstein.
  • As most German states aligned with Austria, Prussia withdrew from the Confederation and quickly moved against the northern states setting the stage for the decisive conflict that would reshape German politics.
  • This sequence of events demonstrates Bismarck's remarkable ability to manipulate diplomatic situations to Prussia's advantage.
• The Seven Weeks’ War: background, events and consequences
  • The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 highlighted Otto von Bismarck's effective orchestration of political, economic, and military factors.
  • The war itself lasted merely seven weeks, with its roots extended into the changing dynamics of European politics and Prussia's institutional transformation and its impact shaped the unification of Germany and German politics for a quarter of a century.
  • Austria's failure to repay its debt to Russia ruptured the Holy Alliance between the two powers, leaving Austria increasingly isolated in European diplomacy.
  • Bismarck’s role and Prussian leadership
    • Delivered his famous "Blood and Iron" speech at a meeting of the budget commission of the Prussian Parliament on September 30, 1862, calling for a "small German" nation-state dominated by Prussia and rejected demands for liberal reform
    • Bismarck's securing of Russian neutrality combined with careful manipulation of French ambitions and Italian aspirations