Theories of Development

1.0 Developmental Theories

Process is change: Neil J. Salkind defines development as a progressive series of changes that occur in a predictable pattern due to interactions between biological and environmental factors.

1.1 Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

• Instinct and Libido: Instinct is the main source of life, driven by libido or sex drive.

• Five Stages of Psychosexual Development:

  • Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure through the mouth (eating, sucking).

  • Anal Stage (2-4 years): Pleasure from controlling bowel movements.

  • Phallic Stage (4-6 years): Pleasure from genitals; Oedipus and Electra complexes.

  • Latency Stage (7 years onward): Resolving fixations, developing closeness with parents.

  • Genital Stage (12 years onward): Sexual interest awakens, forming sex role identity.

1.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

• Conflict or Crisis: Socialization is crucial.

• Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development:

  • Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Basic needs provision.

  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 years): Developing independence.

  • Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): Encouragement to be independent.

  • Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years): Developing skills and competence.

  • Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (12-18 years): Forming a clear identity.

  • Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 years): Forming intimate relationships.

  • Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years): Contributing to society.

  • Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Reflecting on life satisfaction.

1.3 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

• Equilibrium: Achieving balance in cognitive development.

• Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

  • Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through sensory experiences and reflexes.

  • Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and difficulty with abstract concepts.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (8-11 years): Logical thinking and understanding of concrete concepts.

  • Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years): Hypothetical and scientific reasoning.

1.4 Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development

• Moral Dilemma: Deciding what is right and wrong.

• Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development:

  • Pre-conventional Level:

    • Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation.

      • Based on what is the Punishment.

    • Stage 2: Mutual Benefit “Reward Orientation.”

      • Based on what is Rewarded

  • Conventional Level:

    • Stage 3: Social Approval “Good boy-Good girl” Orientation.

      • Based on Social Approval or Peer Pressure

    • Stage 4: Law and Order “Authority Orientation.”

      • Based on Rules that should be followed

  • Post-conventional Level:

    • Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation.

      • Based on Rules and understand these can be Changed based on what is good for the majority

    • Stage 6: Universal Principles.

      • Based on Internal Moral Principles.