Language Change and Lexical Glossary


Orthography (Spelling of Words)

  • Definition: Concerns the conventional spelling of words in a language.

Impact on Phonology:

  • Archaic Spelling: Refers to older, often irregular spellings that can provide insights into the phonological features of both past and current language.

  • Standardisation of Spelling and Words: Refers to the process of establishing consistency in spelling across a language to enhance communication.


Morphology (Structure/Parts of Words)

  • Definition: The study of the internal structure of words.

Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language, including:

  • Prefixes: Added at the beginning of words to alter their meaning

  • Suffixes: Added at the end of words to create different forms or meanings.

  • Base: The core part of the word that carries meaning.

Archaic Inflection: Refers to older morphological forms that are no longer commonly used

Historical Linguistic Events / Reasoning

  • The Great Vowel Shift: Occurred in the late 1400s, a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that primarily affected long vowels. reason: wanting to be different from the ruling class and they had a more French sound to their voices.

  • The First Printing Press brought to England by William Caxton (1476): This invention was crucial in the standardization of English spelling and grammar.

  • the first published dictionary by Samuel Johnson (1755): this was also a crucial player in the standardisation of the English language

  • religion especially the king James version of the Bible (1611) was important and art during the early modern period was highly influential as figures such as Shakespeare also coined words such as “gossip” “zany” and “scuffle”

  • the commercialisation of the computer in the 1980s

  • the rise of the internet in 2000s

  • the invention of the first smart phone 2008

  • rise of social media 2010s

  • WW1 or WW2

  • the conquest of Africa and the East in 1870

Theoretical Frameworks

  • The Unfolding of Language: A concept explored by Guy Deutscher, examining how language develops and evolves over time.

  • Substratum Theory: Explains how languages influence each other during contact, leading to borrowing and changes in vocabulary.

  • Progress or Decay (Jean Aitchison, 1991): Debate on whether language development is a positive progress or negative decay.

  • The S-Curve Model (Chen, 1968): Describes the adoption of linguistic innovations through phases: initial use, widespread acceptance, and eventual obsolescence.

  • Theory of Lexical Gaps: Suggests that there are gaps in vocabulary that may lead to the creation of new words.

  • Halliday's Functions of Language: A framework by Michael Halliday that delineates the various purposes language serves in human communication.

  • Archaic Elision: Refers to the omission (deletion) of certain linguistic elements in older forms of speech or writing. for example using the long ‘S’.

  • Wave Model; this is a model that visualises the spread of words and language as ripples in a wave. the further away from the centre of change the less likely the language will be adopted and there will be more resistance to use it.

Pragmatics and Syntax

  • Pragmatics: how language is used in practical scenarios.

  • Syntax: The rules that govern the structure of sentences.

  • Two key discussions:
      - Prescriptive Syntax: Adherence to strict rules concerning sentence structure.
      -     Descriptive Syntax: Openness to how language is actually used by speakers, ignoring strict rules.

Lexis (The Word/Alphabet)

  • Archaism: Refers to words that are old-fashioned or no longer in common usage.

  • Etymology: The study of the origin of words, e.g., tracing back to Greek or Latin roots.

  • Number of Lexical Items: Refers to the volume or total count of words available in a lexicon/dictionary.

Word Formation Processes:

  • Borrowing/Loanwords: Adoption of words from other languages.( verandah )

  • Derivation: Creating new words by adding morphemes.

  • Telescoping: Shortening multi-word phrases into one word (e.g., "gonna" for "going to")

  • Compounding: Combining two full words (e.g., "notebook")

  • Clipping: Shortening longer words (e.g., "advertisement" to "ad").

  • Blending: Merging parts of two words (e.g., "brunch" from "breakfast" + "lunch")

  • Acronym: Forming words from initial letters of phrases (e.g., "NASA")

  • Backformation: Creating a new word by removing a suffix or prefix (e.g., "to edit" from "editor")

  • Coalescence: The merging of two words into one.

  • Coinage: The act of creating entirely new words (e.g., for marketing purposes)

  • Neologism: The creation of a new term from scratch

  • Eponyms: Words named after people, often reflecting their creators.

Semantic Evolution

Meaning Change Mechanisms

  • Narrowing: Occurs when the meanings of words become more limited in scope.

  • Broadening: Refers to meanings expanding to encompass more referents.

  • Amelioration: A process where meanings improve or become more positive over time.

  • Pejoration: Indicates when meanings deteriorate or acquire negative connotations over time.

  • Connotation vs. Denotation:
       - Denotation: The literal meaning of a word.
       -     Connotation: The emotional or cultural implications tied to a word.

Historical and Cultural Context

  • Cultural Mixture During the Renaissance: The combination of different cultural influences leading to language development.

  • Influence of Poetry, Literature and the church: Notable figures like Shakespeare who contributed to the evolution of language.

  • Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (1755): One of the first comprehensive dictionaries which helped standardize English.

  • the industrial revolution from 1760-1840


Events Influencing Language Evolution

  • Wars

  • Technological Advancements - dictionary (1755), printing press (1476) , computer (1980), etc.

  • Improved Trade and International Relations

  • Colonisation

  • Fashion Trends

  • Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)

  • Invention and Innovation

  • Rise of Social Media(2010s)

  • Influence of the Internet and Digital Media

Application/Theory

  • Cultural Transmission Theory: Suggests that languages may persist in specific communities due to their culture and societal standards. And that language is passed down through generations not necessarily buy ethnic groups but by a society based on their experiences and it is slow.


  • Language Offensive Perspective: Some cultures might have alternatives to specific language forms they deem offensive, transmitting these alternatives generationally.


  • Neologisms for Functionality: New words are often created to fill functions in language, adapting to new needs arising from inventions or changing societal norms.


  • Random Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett): Suggests that changes in language can occur due to random events, such as typos or mispronunciations. they occur because language is inherently unstable so these random changes can occur.


  • Ease of Use: Language evolves to serve ease of communication and cognitive efficiency in human interaction.


  • Coherence and Order in Language: The structure of language (lexis) is shaped by the human desire for order and effective communication.


  • Jean Aitchison's Views on Slang: The emergence of slang does not signify the degradation of language contrary to prescriptivist beliefs.


  • Theory of Lexical Gaps : Languages inherently have gaps in vocabulary that need to be filled, leading to the introduction of new words (neologisms).


  • Wave Model: Explains the diffusion of linguistic change from a central point outwards, illustrating how words gain and lose popularity over time.


  • Substratum Theory Revisited: Emphasizes language borrowing and change stemming from direct interaction between different linguistic communities.