Parchment Production in the Middle Ages

• Definition and Use

  • Parchment was widely used during the Middle Ages for creating pages of books.

• Source Material

  • Parchment was made from the skins of animals.
  • Common animals used included sheep, goats, and calves.

• Process of Making Parchment

  1. Selection of Skins
  • Parchment makers chose the skins based on quality.
  1. Soaking in Lime Water
  • Skins were soaked in lime water for three to ten days to loosen the animal's hair.
  1. Hair Removal and Flesh Scraping
  • After soaking, the hair and any remaining flesh were scraped off using a special knife.
  1. Rinsing and Stretching
  • The skin was then soaked in fresh water to remove lime.
  • The cleaned skin was stretched tightly on a frame, ready for further processing.
  1. Scraping for Thickness
  • A rounded knife was used to achieve the desired thickness, and scraping continued for several days.
  • The tension on the stretching frame was gradually tightened as the skin dried.
  1. Resulting Material
  • Finished parchment was a smooth and durable material that could last over a thousand years.

• Preparation for Writing

  • Before writing could commence, the parchment required special preparation:
  1. Roughening of Surface
     • The parchment surface was rubbed with pumice powder to create a texture suitable for writing.
  2. Dusting with Sticky Powder
     • After the surface was roughened, it was dusted with a sticky powder to enhance ink adherence.
  • The finished skin was then cut down to the required page size for books:
  • Large manuscripts often used sheets nearly the size of a single skin.
  • Smaller books involved cutting the skin into two or more pieces.
  • Sheets were folded and nested to create gatherings of usually 16 or 20 pages.

The Role of the Scribe

• Significance of the Scribe

  • Scribes were essential in the copying of texts onto parchment pages.

• Materials Used by Scribes

  1. Quills
  • Quills were made from bird feathers, soaked in water, dried, and hardened with heated sand.
  • The scribe carved the quill into a rough point, cut a slit to draw ink, and trimmed the tip according to the lettering style.
  1. Ink Production
  • Ink was created from various natural materials, including:
    • Walnuts and gall (growths on oak trees) for dark black ink.
    • Carbon substances dissolved in liquid termed lamp black for additional black ink.
    • Prior to writing, the scribe ruled the parchment using a straight edge for a neater appearance.

• Quality of Script

  • The regularity and elegance of the script were highly valued by scribes and their patrons.
  • Errors were corrected adequately through scratching out mistakes with a pen knife.
  • The resilience of parchment allowed multiple corrections without damaging it.

Illuminations in Manuscripts

• Role of the Illuminator

  • The illuminator was responsible for decorating the manuscript pages after the scribe completed text copying.

• Illumination Process

  1. Sketching the Design
  • Designs were sketched first, followed by details such as figures and decorated initials.
  1. Application of Gold Leaf
  • Sheets of precious metals, particularly gold leaf, were applied first.
  • A base coat of either plaster (gesso) or a gum was used as adhesion for gold leaf.
  • The moisture from the illuminator’s breath was sufficient to make gold leaf adhere after brushing away excess and polishing.
  1. Painting the Design
  • Each color used was derived from vegetable dyes or ground mineral substances dissolved in liquid.
  • The application order was significant:
    • Paler shades were applied first, followed by darker tones.
  1. Finishing Touches
  • Black outlines and white highlights were added to complete the illumination.

Binding Manuscripts

• Assembly of Manuscripts

  • After writing and decorating, the manuscript pages needed binding.

• Techniques Used in Binding

  1. Gathering Preparation
  • Gatherings of folded parchment sheets were sewn together using strong linen thread.
  • Flexible supports, such as narrow leather thongs, were utilized for binding.
  1. Attachment of End Bands
  • End bands were secured at the top and bottom of the spine to stabilize the binding.
  1. Lacing and Covering
  • The leather thongs were laced through channels carved into wooden boards, forming the manuscript covers.
  • Thongs were secured with wood pegs or iron nails.
  1. Covering the Manuscript
  • Manuscripts were typically covered with leather, which could expand and contract with temperature and humidity changes.
  • Clasps or straps were added for pressure to keep the leaves flat.
  • Various decorative materials were used, including:
    • Leather stamped or tooled with gold and silk or velvet coverings.
    • The choice of binding material was influenced by the patron's wealth, the manuscript's purpose, and type.