Anatomy and Physiology Spring FINAL Exam Review 2026

*need to review a lot

Muscles and Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal Muscle diagram

   1. epimysium, endomysium, perimysium, myofiber, myofibril, tendon, fascicle.

2. *An individual muscle cell is called a myofiber and a bundle of muscle cells is called a fascicle.

3. 3 types of muscles tissues

   1. Smooth - organs, involuntary

   2. Cardiac - heart, involuntary

   3. Skeletal - rest of body, moves bones, voluntary

4. *Fascia - connective tissue that surrounds and support muscles, made of dense connective tissue

5. *Actin and myosin proteins slide past each other, make the sarcomere shorter and cause muscles to contract. Calcium and ATP are needed as well.

6. ANTERIOR view - muscles of body and face

   1. frontalis, zygomaticus, orbicularis oris, orbicularis oculi, masseter, temporalis, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major, deltoid, rectus abdominis, external oblique, transversus abdominis, biceps brachii, tensor fascia lata, sartorius, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, peroneus longus, anterior tibialis, adductor group, gracilis, gastrocnemius

   2. POSTERIOR view of MUSCLES → trapezius, deltoid, triceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, external oblique, gluteus medias, gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius, semitendinosis, adductor muscle, gracilis.
      

*Nervous System

8. Neuron - a nerve cells that carries impulses

   1. axon, dendrite, cell body, nucleus, axonal terminal, myelin.

9. Sensory receptors - detect changes in environment 

1. Chemo - chemicals (taste and smell)

2. Mechano - touch/pressure

3. Noci - pain

4. Thermo - temperature

5. Photo - light

8. *Myelin - fatty insulation around axons, speeds up nerve impulses

9. *Action potential - electrical impulse traveling down a neuron

   1. Sodium (Na+)

   2. Potassium (K+)

10. *Synapse - junction between neurons 

    1. *Neurotransmitters - released at some synapses, carry signals across synapse

11. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems

    1. CNS - brain and spinal cord

    2. PNS - nerves outside of CNS

12. *Sensory nerves carry information TO CNS, motor nerves carries commands FROM CNS.

13. *Reflex arc - rapid automatic response to a stimulus

14. Sketch of reflex arc →

stimulus, sensory receptors, sensory neuron, integration center (brain or spinal cord), motor neuron, effector (muscle).

17. Disorders

    1. Alzheimer's - abnormal protein buildup → memory loss, confusion

    2. *Cerebral edema - brain swelling from infection or trauma → headaches, confusion, brain damage

    3. Ambidexerity - natural → use both hands well

    4. Quadriplega - severe spinal cord injury in neck → paralysis of arms, legs, and torso

    5. Paraplegia - spinal cord injury fo lower spine → paralysis of legs or lower body

    6. Stroke - blocked or burst blood vessel in the brain → loss of brain function, speech problems, weakness

    7. Paralysis - damage to nervous system → loss of movement ability

    8. Ancephaly - neural tube fails to close during fetal development → major parts of skull missing

    9. *Spina bifida - incomplete closing of spinal column during development → weakness, bladder/bowel problems 

    10. Cerebral palsy - loss of oxygen during birth or infancy → poor muscle control and movement problems

    11. Concussion - blow to the head → headache, dizziness, memory problems

18. *4 major brain regions

    1. Cerebrum - thinking, memory, senses

    2. Cerebellum - balance, coordination

    3. Brainstem - vitals functions

    4. Diencephalon - relays and homeostasis

19. LATERAL view of the Brain

cerebellum, cerebral hemispheres, frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, medulla oblongata, pons.

20. *Found in cerebrum

    1. Gyrus - ridge

    2. Fissure - deep grove

21. *Gray and white matter

    1. Gray - neurone cell bodies

    2. White - myelinated axons

22. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and the body and controls reflexes. 

23. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cushions and protects the CNS, located in the brain and spinal cord.

24. *Functions

    1. Thalamus - relay station of the brain

    2. Hypothalamus - maintains homeostasis

    3. Epithalamus - contains the pineal gland, secretes melatonin for circadian rhythm

    4. Pons - bridge between regions, breathing, sleep, expressions, signals between cerebrum and cerebellum

    5. Medulla oblongata - controls involuntary functions 

    6. Corpus callosum - thick band of nerve fibers that connect cerebral hemispheres.

The Eye

25. LATERAL view of the eye

optic nerve, sclera, cornea,

pupil, iris, lens, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, retina.

26. *Functions

    1. Optic nerve - carries visual impulses

    2. Sclera - maintains eye shape

    3. Cornea - bends light

    4. Pupil - opening for light

    5. Iris - controls pupil size, colored part

    6. Lens - focuses light

    7. Aqueous humor - nourishes cores and lens, maintains eye pressure, fluid in front

    8. Vitreous humor - keep eye shape and support retina, back jelly

    9. Retina - contains photoreceptors

27. Eye disorders

    1. *Glaucoma - increased eye pressure that damages optic nerve, blurry vision

    2. *Cataracts - clouding of lens, blurry vision

    3. Hyperopia - eyeball short, farsighted

    4. Myopia - eyeball long, nearsighted

    5. Astigmatism - irregularly shaped cornea or lens

Hearing, Smell, Taste

28. Chemoreceptors detect smell and taste

29. *5 taste sensations

    1. Sweet - sugars

    2. Sour - acids

    3. Bitter - alkaloids

    4. Salty - salts

    5. Umami - amino acids

30. *Taste buds are the organ of taste, olfactory epithelium is the organ of smell, taste is 80% smells.

31. Olfactory adaptation - becoming less sensitive to smells over time

32. EAR DIAGRAM 

pinna, external auditory canal, tympanic

membrane, hammer, anvil, stirrup, semicircular canals, eustachian tube, cochlea.

33. 3 major parts of the ear

    1. Outer - pina, canal

    2. Middle - ossicles (hammer, avail, stirrup), eardrum

    3. Inner - cochlea, semicircular canals

34. Eardrum = tympanic membrane - vibrates with sounds

35. 3 bones (ossicles) - stirrup/stapes, anvil/incus, hammer/malleus

36. 2 functions of inner ear - hearing (cochlea) and balance (semicircular canals)

Cardiovascular System

37. *Oxygen poor blood returning to the heart → vena cava → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → mitral valve → left ventricle → aorta → body

38. *Receives and sends blood

    1. Aorta - heart to body (rich)

    2. Superior/ineferior vena cava - body to heart (poor)

    3. Pulmonary veins - lungs to heart (rich) 

    4. Pulmonary arteries - heart to lungs (poor)

39. *Interactions

    1. Respiratory - transports O₂/CO₂

    2. Endocrine - transports hormones

    3. Digestive - carries nutrients

    4. Immune - transports WBCs

    5. Urinary - kidneys filter blood

40. Heart diagram

septum, RA, LA, RV, LV,

aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava

41. *Disorders

    1. Murmur - abnormal valve sound from not fully closing

    2. Mycardial infarction - heart attack

    3. Hemophilia - poor clotting of blood

    4. Leukemia - blood cancer

    5. Anemia - lows RBCs/hemoglobin

42. Components of blood

    1. Erythrocytes - carries oxygen

    2. Leukocyte - fights infection

    3. Platelet (thrombocyte) - clotting

    4. Plasma - liquid transport

Reproductive System

43. MALE reproductive system
    

epididymis, testes,

ureter, urethra, rectum, bladder, prostate gland, seminal vesicle, bulbourethral gland,

scrotum, vas deferens.

44. FEMALE reproductive system

bladder, rectum,

uterus, fallopian tube, ovary, cervix, vagina.

45. *Erection - caused by increased blood flow to erectile tissue

46. Scrotum - protects testes, regulates temperature for sperm production

47. Menstrual cycle 

    1. 28 day cycle in females in which uterine lining (endometrium) is shed 

    2. Day 1 - shed uterine lining

    3. Day 14 - ovulation

48. Ova are produced in the ovaries. Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes in females. A fertilized egg is implanted in the uterus for embryo development.

49. Ovulation - release of egg from ovary

50. **Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Human Torso - Body System Overview

51. List the function and body system for each organ