Early Nineteenth Century Foreign Policy and the Monroe Doctrine
Post-War Environment and the Era of Good Feelings
The early nineteenth century in the United States, particularly after the War of 1812, was characterized as the "Era of Good Feelings."
This period was defined by several key internal characteristics:
General peace.
Economic prosperity.
Widespread patriotism.
Maintenance of social order with no major foreign policy discord.
Despite the internal stability, a significant foreign policy issue emerged involving developments in "Hispanic America."
The Hispanic American Wars for Independence
Historically, Spain had colonized vast territories including the Southern part of North America, Middle America, and South America.
In the early nineteenth century, these colonies engaged in revolutionary wars to achieve independence from their "mother countries," specifically Spain and Portugal (in the case of Brazil).
Similarities and Differences with the United States Revolutions:
Common History: Both the United States and Hispanic Americans had been forcefully conquered and colonized by European imperial powers and lived under that rule for decades.
Common Cause: Hispanic Americans viewed the US as a role model and hoped to follow the US example of establishing independent republics.
Lack of Unity: Unlike the English colonies, which managed to unify, the Hispanic American colonies were unable to do so because they were much more spread out and diverse.
Diplomatic Appeals to the United States
As Hispanic American revolutionaries fought for independence, they looked to the United States as a natural ally based on shared history.
Revolutionaries sent representatives to Washington, D.C., with specific requests for assistance:
Formal recognition of their independence.
Establishment of trade agreements.
Financial assistance in the form of loans.
Military hardware.
The deployment of actual United States troops to aid in the wars of independence.
John Quincy Adams and the Shift to Practical Self-Interest
During the presidency of James Monroe, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was the primary architect of foreign policy. He was faced with a choice between two ideological paths:
Ideology and Moral Obligation: Defining foreign policy by a desire to spread democracy, freedom, liberty, and the "American way."
Practical Self-Interest: Defining foreign policy by what would best serve the tangible needs and security of the United States.
Adams's Decision:
He explicitly chose the path of practical self-interest.
He refused to provide any of the assistance requested by Hispanic American revolutionaries.
He determined that US self-interest would be negatively impacted if the government aided these countries in their quest for independence.
Justifications and Rationalizations:
Abandoning Revolutionary Identity: Adams decided the US should cast its lot with European nations rather than with Hispanic American republics, moving the US away from its past as a revolutionary republic and toward becoming a "modern member of the world of nations."
Racial and Cultural Bias: Adams refused to meet with revolutionary representatives, suggesting that "those people" were "incapable of self-rule." This sentiment was rooted in the "Black Legend," which characterized Hispanic Americans as fundamentally different from and inferior to "white Europeans."
Avoidance of War: Adams argued that helping these colonies would likely lead the US into a war not just with Spain, but with other European imperial powers seeking to maintain their own colonial holdings.
The Acquisition of Florida and the Adams-Onís Treaty
A primary driver for Adams's pragmatism was the desire to acquire Florida, which was still part of the Spanish Empire.
Strategic Importance: Adams believed Florida would "complete" the United States geographically, specifically the territory to the East of the Mississippi River.
Negotiation Strategy: Adams knew that if the US helped Spain's colonies, Spain would refuse to negotiate the transfer of Florida.
The Adams-Onís Treaty:
The US eventually acquired Florida through this treaty.
Spain deliberately delayed the ratification of the treaty as long as possible, knowing that once the US possessed Florida, it would likely grant recognition to the newly independent Hispanic countries.
Once the Spanish American colonies achieved independence without US help and reached a state of "de facto independence," the US finally stepped in to recognize them.
The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Formulated by John Quincy Adams and announced by President James Monroe in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine established a definitive stance on the Western Hemisphere.
Key Provisions:
The United States recognized the independence of Hispanic American countries.
It declared that the US would not tolerate further European interference in the entire Western Hemisphere.
It established the Western Hemisphere as a US "sphere of influence."
Underlying Intent:
The doctrine was not primarily intended to protect the infant republics, but to promote US interests.
By keeping Europe out, the US aimed to dominate these countries economically.
The US reserved the right to stay out of European affairs in exchange for European exclusion from the Americas.
Evolution and Modern Applications of US Foreign Policy
Legacy of Self-Interest: Adams's determination that foreign policy should be about practical self-interest has influenced US actions for the subsequent two hundred years.
Modern Connections:
America First Doctrine: President Trump's "America First" policy is cited as a modern iteration of JQA’s practical self-interest philosophy.
Conditional Foreign Aid: Even when the US provides foreign aid today, it is often tied directly to furthering US national self-interests rather than pure altruism.
Interventionism and the Monroe Doctrine:
The US later amended the doctrine to assert a right to interfere in Western Hemisphere countries to ensure they remain "friendly" to US interests.
Historical Interventions: The US has used this doctrine to justify invading Mexico repeatedly and Nicaragua times.
Regime Changes: The doctrine has been invoked in the overthrow of governments in countries like Guatemala and Chile in recent decades.
Military Presence: The continued maintenance of the military base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, is a contemporary extension of these nineteenth-century policies.