Notes for Humans and the Environment Through Time
Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age)
Timeframe: 2.5\times 10^{6} years ago to 10^{4} years ago.
Lifestyle: small, nomadic hunter-gatherer groups; subsisted on wild plants, fruits, roots, freshwater, and game; followed seasonal migration; deep environmental knowledge essential for survival.
Early ecosystem modification:
Anthropogenic Fire Management: deliberate use of fire to manipulate the environment; controlled burning to clear underbrush, drive game, and regenerate grasslands.
Example: Aboriginal Australians fire-stick farming used to shape the landscape for easier hunting and to promote edible plants.
Megafaunal Extinction: overhunting of large animals (megafauna) contributed to the extinction of species such as the woolly mammoth in Eurasia and the giant ground sloth in the Americas; evidence from archaeological sites shows extinctions often coincided with human arrival.
Cultural ecology: Paleolithic humans’ behaviors were shaped by environmental conditions, and in turn they influenced their surroundings; humans were ecosystem participants, not just passive dwellers.
Animism and Totemism: early belief systems attributing spiritual significance to natural elements.
Animism: natural objects (rivers, mountains, trees, animals, celestial bodies) possess spiritual essence or consciousness.
Example: the San people regard the eland antelope as sacred with spiritual power.
Totemism: affiliated with specific animals or natural entities (totems) as kinship symbols and protective spiritual connections; examples include Native Australians and North American First Nations.
Significance: these worldviews promoted reverence, restraint, and certain subsistence practices that influenced intergroup behavior and resource use.
Neolithic Era (~10,000 – ~3,000 BCE)
Timeframe: roughly 10{,}000\text{ BCE} \text{ to } 3{,}000\text{ BCE}.
Major transition: shift from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agricultural societies; domestication of plants and animals; permanent settlements; agricultural surplus enabling population growth and social stratification.
Ecological changes:
Widespread deforestation to create farmland; ecosystems became more simplified and vulnerable to pests and disease; local climates could be altered.
Soil degradation from repeated cultivation without rotation or fallow: erosion, salinization, nutrient depletion; in Mesopotamia, early irrigation caused salt buildup and reduced crop productivity.
Water resource manipulation: canal and irrigation systems enabling expansion of agriculture into drier regions, with unintended consequences such as desertification in some contexts.
Kaingin (swidden agriculture) in the Philippine highlands: patch clearing by fire, short cultivation, and fallow periods; when practiced with traditional knowledge, it allowed forest regeneration and long-term soil fertility; rooted in indigenous ecological understanding.
Cultural shifts:
Animistic and spiritual relationships with agricultural deities; fertility rituals and sacred landscapes; environment seen both as provider and as something to be controlled and modified.
Early forms of agroecology: shaping ecosystems to meet human needs, often with trade-offs to long-term sustainability.
Ancient Civilizations and Environmental Modification (~3,000 BCE – 500 CE)
Overview: complex civilizations emerged around river valleys and coastal areas; increased capacity to modify the environment through monumental architecture, irrigation networks, and intensified agriculture; environmental modification was both enabling and stressing ecosystems.
;
Irrigation and hydraulic engineering: canals, reservoirs, aqueducts, and water-lifting devices to divert and manage water; examples: Mesopotamian canal irrigation and Egyptian Nile-based systems.
Urbanization and deforestation: city growth increased timber demand for fuel and construction; regional deforestation altered microclimates and habitats.
Soil salinization and collapse: unsustainable irrigation practices led to rising groundwater and salt buildup; Mesopotamian agriculture experienced decline due to salinized soils.
Land terracing and Indigenous engineering: Banaue Rice Terraces in the Philippines represent sustainable slope stabilization, soil fertility management, and gravity-fed water distribution.
Religious and cultural landscapes: rivers, mountains, and forests held sacred meanings; temples aligned with celestial events—linking environmental management with religious practice.
Regional exemplars and insights:
1) Mesopotamia (Tigris–Euphrates): canal irrigation; soil salinization; deforestation leading to desertification; by ~1800 BCE, salinized soils reduced wheat viability; barley more salt-tolerant.
2) Ancient Egypt (Nile): seasonal floods deposited fertile silt; relatively sustainable due to controlled irrigation and centralized governance; large-scale basins and dams (e.g., Sadd el-Kafara).
3) Indus Valley (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro): advanced urban sanitation and planned urban design; deforestation for brick kilns; climate shifts (monsoon weakening) tied to decline.
4) Ancient China (Yellow and Yangtze): extensive terracing and levees for rice/millet; Great Yu-lore highlights flood control importance; early domestication of silkworms and tea; crop rotation techniques.
5) Mesoamerica and the Andes: Maya—slash-and-burn, chinampas; later deforestation and nutrient depletion linked to city collapse; Inca—terraced farming and highland irrigation.
6) Classical Greece and Rome: Greece faced deforestation/erosion from shipbuilding and olive cultivation; Rome built aqueducts, sewer systems (Cloaca Maxima), paved roads; contributions to public health and urban sanitation, yet pollution remained a challenge.Takeaway: early environmental engineering networks enabled urbanization and state formation but also introduced ecological vulnerabilities when resource use outpaced system resilience.
Medieval Land Use and Cultural Landscapes (500 – 1500 CE)
Context: feudal expansion across Europe, Asia, and Africa; intensified land use; persistent sustainable practices in Indigenous and upland communities of the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.
Key land-use practices and interactions:
Feudal agriculture and forest clearing: manorial estates; deforestation for agriculture and settlements; soil erosion, habitat loss, biodiversity decline; example: woodlands in France and England diminished during the High Middle Ages.
Cultural landscapes and terracing: mountainous farming in Asia and the Philippines; Ifugao terraces maintained and expanded, exemplifying sustainable Indigenous ecological knowledge.
Islamic water management and greening deserts: qanats, aqueducts, cisterns; strategic irrigation in arid regions (Al-Andalus, Persia); Arabic agricultural manuals emphasized crop rotation and water conservation.
Sacred groves and monastic gardens: sacred forest patches in India; European monasteries with herbal gardens and orchards practicing organic farming aligned with ecological rhythms.
Ecological consequences of expansion and war: forest frontiers receded; invasions and Crusades facilitated spread of invasive species and diseases (e.g., black rats, Black Death); overgrazing in Central Asia and the Middle East contributed to land degradation and desertification.
Special case: Swidden (kaingin) and mixed agroforestry persisted in upland areas, integrating shifting cultivation with tree crops and biodiversity preservation in parts of Southeast Asia.
The Age of Exploration and Colonialism (1500 – 1800 CE)
Context: European maritime powers (Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Netherlands) expanded globally; Columbian Exchange reshaped ecosystems, agriculture, and populations.
Key environmental impacts and cultural practices:
The Columbian Exchange: cross-continental transfer of crops, animals, people, and diseases; maize, potatoes, and cassava introduced to Europe, Asia, and Africa; wheat, sugarcane, and coffee introduced to the Americas; ecological dynamics included both increased food security and the spread of invasive pests/diseases (e.g., smallpox) causing demographic shocks.
Deforestation and plantation economies: large tracts cleared for sugar, tobacco, indigo, cotton; in the Philippines, Spanish colonizers emphasized logging and export crops (abaca, tobacco); these shifts reduced biodiversity, depleted soils, and affected local food systems.
Mining and environmental degradation: colonial extraction of gold, silver, and other minerals; extensive mining (e.g.,.Potosí silver) caused land degradation and mercury pollution; Philippines saw expansion of mining during the galleon trade era.
Forced labor systems and landscape change: encomienda, hacienda, and slave plantations used coerced Indigenous and African labor to extract resources; in the Philippines, polo y servicio expanded land conversion and disrupted traditional practices.
Colonial urbanism and coastal development: Manila, Batavia (Jakarta), Havana grew as port cities; mangrove deforestation, wetland reclamation, and European urban planning altered coastal and estuarine ecosystems.
Environmental resilience and resistance: Indigenous communities in the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Africa maintained or revived agroecological practices—forest gardens, intercropping, and water harvesting—as forms of cultural continuity and resistance.
The Industrial Revolution and Urban Environmental Change (1800–1900 CE)
Core transformation: shift from agrarian to industrialized economies powered by fossil fuels (coal); mechanization and urban growth redefined human-environment interactions; global environmental degradation intensified.
Key environmental impacts and cultural practices:
Fossil fuel dependency: coal powered steam engines; dramatic increases in atmospheric carbon; mining caused air and water pollution and land subsidence; marked the birth of the carbon economy.
Urbanization and industrial cities: rural-to-urban migration; rapid city growth; sanitation deficits; waterborne diseases; crowded slums; limited environmental planning.
Deforestation and raw material extraction: forest clearance for urban expansion, timber, charcoal, and railway construction; colonized regions supplied European industries with timber and minerals.
Industrial waste and water pollution: untreated chemical waste discharged into rivers; examples: Thames River (London), Pasig River (Manila);
Agricultural intensification: mechanized plows, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation; yield increases but at the cost of soil degradation, water depletion, and erosion; traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) declined in many sites (e.g., lowland Philippines agriculture).
Emergence of environmental awareness: early conservation and reform movements; figures like John Muir in the U.S.; early foresters in British India promoted forest protection and improved urban living conditions.
The Modern Environmental Crisis and the Anthropocene Epoch (1900 – Present)
The Anthropocene concept and Great Acceleration (post-1950): human activities became the dominant force shaping Earth systems; a proposed geological epoch characterized by unprecedented scale of human impact.
Hallmarks and consequences:
Climate change and global warming: greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels and deforestation driving rising temperatures, extreme weather, and sea-level rise; local impacts include typhoon intensification and saltwater intrusion in the Philippines.
Biodiversity loss and habitat fragmentation: expanding urban areas, infrastructure, logging, and industrial agriculture reducing species richness and ecosystem connectivity; examples include Amazon deforestation and coral reef bleaching in the Philippines.
Pollution and waste crisis: air, water, and soil pollution; plastic, microplastics, and e-waste contaminating food chains and water systems; Manila Bay and Pasig River as emblematic sites.
Agricultural intensification and GMOs: high-input farming with chemical fertilizers and pesticides; genetic modification raising yields but contributing to soil erosion, water contamination, and reduced agrobiodiversity.
Environmental injustice and displacement: marginalized communities—especially in the Global South—bear disproportionate burdens yet contribute least to the crisis (e.g., Mindanao communities, typhoon-prone provinces).
Rise of environmentalism and international cooperation: landmark works like Silent Spring spurred activism; Earth Summits (e.g., 1992) and the Paris Agreement catalyzed global climate action.
Technological solutions and green innovation: renewables, green buildings, EVs, circular economy; in the Philippines, solar and wind energy projects expanding to reduce fossil fuel dependence.
Case Study: The Collapse of the Classic Maya Civilization
Geography and timeframe: southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras; ca. 250–900 CE; major cities include Tikal, Palenque, Copán; highly productive through slash-and-burn, terracing, and water management.
Collapse pattern: by the end of the 9th century, many major urban centers in the southern lowlands were abandoned; evidence links environmental mismanagement to collapse.
Environmental impacts and factors:
Deforestation and soil erosion: extensive forest clearance for construction, lime plaster, and fuel reduced soil fertility and biodiversity; erosion increased vulnerability to drought.
Agricultural overexploitation: high population pressure encouraged maize intensification on marginal lands; insufficient soil recovery led to fragile farming systems.
Climate change and megadroughts: paleoclimatic data show droughts from 800–1000 CE; insufficient irrigation or drought-resistant crops heightened vulnerability.
Water system failure: reservoirs depended on rainwater and were clogged by sediment; drought and sedimentation undermined urban water security.
Cultural and social impacts:
Abandonment of urban centers; loss of political unity; population decline; some cultural continuity persists in descendant communities.
Environmental concepts and lessons learned:
Ecological overshoot: demand exceeded the land’s regenerative capacity.
Carrying capacity: the environment could not sustain dense populations under stress.
Climate vulnerability: limited buffers against climate variability.
Systemic fragility: tightly coupled social, political, and ecological systems amplified collapse risk.
Modern parallels and warnings: Maya collapse illustrates how resource overuse, climate stress, and social rigidity can drive complex civilizations to collapse; serves as a cautionary case for contemporary global sustainability challenges.
Assessment Activity: Timeline Project
Task: design a visual timeline tracing the evolution of human-environment relationships from prehistoric foraging to industrialization and the Anthropocene.
Include major turning points (e.g., Neolithic Revolution, rise of cities, Industrial Revolution).
Include at least two environmental collapse examples (e.g., Easter Island, Maya) and corresponding lessons learned.
Output format: hand-drawn or digitally illustrated timeline (e.g., Canva, Google Slides, infographic tools).
Each point must be annotated with 2–3 sentences explaining its environmental significance.
Evaluation Rubric:
Content Accuracy: 30%
Clarity and Organization: 25%
Relevance of Examples: 25%
Creativity and Visual Design: 20%
Additional resources / Links
National Museum of the Philippines. (n.d.). The Beginnings of Agriculture in the Philippines. https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph
Global Footprint Network. (2023). Ecological Footprint Explorer. https://data.footprintnetwork.org
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. (2020). Philippine Fisheries Profile. https://www.bfar.da.gov.ph
World Bank. (2017). Philippines Urbanization Review: Fostering Competitive, Sustainable and Inclusive Cities. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/643321490054122342
DENR-BMB. (2022). Philippine Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PBSAP). https://bmb.gov.ph/index.php/resources/brochures
References (from course materials)
Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin.
Green, J. F. (2014). Rethinking private authority: Agents and entrepreneurs in global environmental governance. Princeton University Press.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2021). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/
Pellow, D. N. (2017). What is critical environmental justice? Polity Press.
Republic of the Philippines. (2001). Republic Act No. 9003: Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra90032001.html
Robbins, P. (2012). Political ecology: A critical introduction (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Shiva, V. (2016). Who really feeds the world? The failures of agribusiness and the promise of agroecology. North Atlantic Books.
Simmons, I. G. (2008). Global environmental history: 10,000 BC to AD 2000. University of Chicago Press.
United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2020). Human development report 2020: The next frontier—Human development and the Anthropocene. http://hdr.undp.org
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2021). From pollution to solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution. https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our common future (The Brundtland Report). Oxford University Press.
WWF. (2020). Living Planet Report 2020 – Bending the curve of biodiversity loss. Almond, R. E. A., Grooten, M., & Petersen, T. (Eds.). https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/living-planet-report-2020