In-depth Notes on Verbs & Verb Phrases

4.1 Verbs

  • Definition: Verbs are central members of the word-class with two essential properties:

    • Inflection: Tensed forms indicative of time (past or present).
    • Examples:
      • He lived in Sydney (past).
      • He lives in Sydney (present).
    • Functional Potential: They serve as the head of a clause.

  • Tensed vs Non-tensed Verbs: Tensed verbs are more central than non-tensed verbs, which can be seen in the examples:

    • Tensed: He was writing the letter (Writing is the head of the VP).
    • Non-tensed: [The one] writing the letter [was her brother].

  • Lexeme Classification:

    • Main lexeme properties include the inflectional paradigm and functional potential.
    • Inflectional Forms of Verbs:
    • Tensed (past, present): e.g., took, takes.
    • Non-tensed: base form, -ing form, -en form.

  • Morphological Rules:

    • 3rd Person Singular Present Tense Formation:
    1. Add /IZ/ or /ǝz/ to sibilant-ending stems (e.g., kisses).
    2. Add /s/ to voiceless consonants (e.g., hops).
    3. Otherwise, add /z/ (e.g., lobs).

  • Unique Forms:

    • Modals (e.g., can, may, must) do not have non-tensed forms or person-number distinctions.

  • Defectiveness: Some verbs may lack certain forms, such as 'beware' which only has a base form.

  • Functional Potential: Most verbs can function as the head of a clause. Modal verbs, excluding auxiliary uses, act as dependents only.

  • Lexical Morphology:

    • Verb stems are derived from class-changing and class-preserving affixation, conversion, and compounding.

4.2 Structure of the Verb Phrase (VP)

  • Composition of the VP: The VP includes a head element (the verb) and may have dependents (e.g., auxiliary verbs, 'to', and 'not').

    • Auxiliary Verbs: Modify the meaning of the main verb and do not function alone.
    • Infinitival Particle: ‘To’ behaves similarly to an inflection but is treated as a separate entity within the sentence structure.

  • Negative Forms: The negation (not) often requires the presence of an operator, which can be the verb 'do'.

4.3 Systems of the VP

  • Inflectional Forms of Verbs: The first verb determines the inflectional form of subsequent verbs within the VP.

    • Types of VPs:
    • Tensed VPs carry a tense marking from the initial verb.
    • Non-Tensed VPs lack such inflection, e.g., He was being pestered.

  • Modal Auxiliaries: Show unique properties, such as no non-tensed forms and lack of agreement with the subject.

4.4 Operators, Auxiliaries, and Catenatives

  • Definition of Operators: Operators must function as included in VP for negative and emphatic constructions.
    • Essential for constructions requiring a tensed verb.

4.5 Tense

  • Location in Time: Tense marks the relation of the action to time (past, present, future).
    • Main Uses: Illustrated through examples (e.g., Kim lived in Berlin vs. Kim has lived in Berlin).

4.6 Progressive Aspect

  • Definition: The progressive aspect describes actions in progress, emphasizing the dynamic nature rather than static existence.
    • Illustrations:
    • It was raining (in progress) vs. It rained (completed).

4.7 Perfect Aspect

  • Definition: The perfect aspect conveys actions that are completed in relation to some present time.
    • Inclusive vs. Exclusive Past: A distinction in how past actions are viewed regarding their relevance to the present.

4.8 Analytic Mood

  • Classification: Modal vs Non-modal VPs, identifying distinctions by their auxiliary verbs.
    • Types of Modality: Epistemic vs. Deontic, illustrating differences in meanings through examples.