Exam Study Guide Notes

PowerPoint presentations for sections 9 and 10.
Three journal articles:
- Two articles on theory from recent class periods.
- One article on ENA (Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic) theory discussed after the second exam.

Focus on the main findings of each article, not the details.
Example: Maturity gap study:
- Maturity gap was a good predictor of adolescent-limited offending for males.
- Results were mixed for females; the prediction was not as accurate.

Genes are the primary influence on behavior from a biological standpoint but do not directly cause behavior.
- Behavior results from the interaction between genes and the environment, especially concerning criminal behavior.

Definition of heritability: H^2
Twin and adoption studies are used to determine the extent of genetic and environmental influences on traits.
Twin studies: genetic vs environmental influences.
Identical twins: monozygotic twins.
Fraternal twins: dizygotic twins.
Trait similarity among genetically alike individuals in different environments indicates strong genetic influences.
Review the two slides discussing research on heritability.

Definition of evolution.
Natural selection.
Female parenting effort vs. male mating effort.
Criminal behavior is normal from an evolutionary perspective and must have served a purpose at some point.
Criminal behavior is a way to acquire valued resources by exploiting and deceiving others (cheaters).
Most people have evolved to cooperate and build trust, reducing the need for criminal behavior.

Two fundamental assumptions:
- The desire for status is genetic or unlearned.
- Techniques for status striving must be learned.
- Initial attempts may be crude and often criminal.
- Most males learn appropriate ways to achieve status.

Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS).
- Dopamine is associated with BAS.
- Serotonin is associated with BIS.
Most people have a balance of dopamine and serotonin.
Criminals often have a dominant BAS due to overproduction of dopamine or underproduction of serotonin.
Poor parenting is associated with low serotonin levels.
Levels of dopamine and serotonin in the BIS and BAS are preset by genetics but can be altered by early childhood experiences.

Most criminal careers begin in childhood.
Primary ages for crime are 15 to 25, stable across cultures, suggesting biological influences.

Adolescence: Definition needed.
Puberty: Dramatic increase in testosterone, especially in males.
During puberty and adolescence:
- Dopamine increases.
- Serotonin decreases.
- This increases risk-taking behavior, sensation-seeking, and status-seeking.

Dynamic vs. static risk factors.
ADHD:
- Risk factor for adult offending.
- High in heritability.
- More prevalent among males.
Conduct disorder.

Low self-control and irritability are the two super traits.
Interact with four domains: family, school, peers, and work.
Super traits evoke negative responses from people in these domains, worsening behavior.

Social control theory incorporating adult social bonds.
Theory of desistance from crime.
Turning points:
- Getting married.
- Finding a decent job.
- Moving to a new neighborhood.
- Joining the military.

Developed from a 40-year study.
Three classifications:
- Life-Course Persistent Offenders (LCPs).
- Adolescent-Limited Offenders (ALs).
- Abstainers.
LCPs:
- Begin offending prior to puberty and continue into adulthood.
- Examples: biting, kicking at age 4; shoplifting, truancy at age 10.
- Biological risk factors: low IQ, hyperactivity, slow heart rate, low impulse control.
- Environmental risk factors: single teenage mother, low socioeconomic status, inconsistent discipline, abuse or neglect.
- Small group (7%) but account for 50% of offenses.
ALs:
- Adequately socialized by competent parents.
- Maturity gap.
- Association with delinquent peers is important for both ALs and LCPs, but for different reasons.
  - LCPs show antisocial behavior before associating with delinquent peers.
  - ALs begin offending by associating with delinquent peers.
  - LCPs often lead antisocial peer groups.
  - ALs learn from the antisocial peers.
Snares: Relate to desistance.
Desistance for ALs depends on the depth of integration into the antisocial peer group.
Good attachments and a store of social capital can pull them out of offending.

ENA theory article (located under articles on Canvas).
Two articles on Moffitt's theory (maturity gap and genetic influences on offending, located under final exam materials on Canvas).
Focus on the main findings, not specific study details.