Exam Study Guide Notes

Exam Information

• Exam format: 40-50 questions, no essay questions.

Study Guide

Sections to Focus On

• PowerPoint presentations for sections 9 and 10.

• Three journal articles:

  • Two articles on theory from recent class periods.

  • One article on ENA (Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic) theory discussed after the second exam.

Journal Articles

• Focus on the main findings of each article, not the details.

• Example: Maturity gap study:

  • Maturity gap was a good predictor of adolescent-limited offending for males.

  • Results were mixed for females; the prediction was not as accurate.

Section 9: Genetic Influences

• Genes are the primary influence on behavior from a biological standpoint but do not directly cause behavior.

  • Behavior results from the interaction between genes and the environment, especially concerning criminal behavior.

Heritability

• Definition of heritability: H^2

• Twin and adoption studies are used to determine the extent of genetic and environmental influences on traits.

• Twin studies: genetic vs environmental influences.

• Identical twins: monozygotic twins.

• Fraternal twins: dizygotic twins.

• Trait similarity among genetically alike individuals in different environments indicates strong genetic influences.

• Review the two slides discussing research on heritability.

Traits with High Heritability

• Altruism.

• Aggression.

• Empathy.

• Self-control.

Evolutionary Psychology

• Definition of evolution.

• Natural selection.

• Female parenting effort vs. male mating effort.

• Criminal behavior is normal from an evolutionary perspective and must have served a purpose at some point.

• Criminal behavior is a way to acquire valued resources by exploiting and deceiving others (cheaters).

• Most people have evolved to cooperate and build trust, reducing the need for criminal behavior.

ENA Theory (Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory)

• Two fundamental assumptions:

  • The desire for status is genetic or unlearned.

  • Techniques for status striving must be learned.

  • Initial attempts may be crude and often criminal.

  • Most males learn appropriate ways to achieve status.

Reward Dominance Theory

• Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS).

  • Dopamine is associated with BAS.

  • Serotonin is associated with BIS.

• Most people have a balance of dopamine and serotonin.

• Criminals often have a dominant BAS due to overproduction of dopamine or underproduction of serotonin.

• Poor parenting is associated with low serotonin levels.

• Levels of dopamine and serotonin in the BIS and BAS are preset by genetics but can be altered by early childhood experiences.

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

• Damage to the PFC can lead to antisocial behavior.

Developmental Theories

• Focus on:

  • Onset of offending.

  • Frequency of offending.

  • Duration of offending.

  • Seriousness of offending.

  • Desistance from offending.

• Incorporate social, psychological, and biological factors.

Juvenile Delinquency

• Most criminal careers begin in childhood.

• Primary ages for crime are 15 to 25, stable across cultures, suggesting biological influences.

Adolescence and Puberty

• Adolescence: Definition needed.

• Puberty: Dramatic increase in testosterone, especially in males.

• During puberty and adolescence:

  • Dopamine increases.

  • Serotonin decreases.

  • This increases risk-taking behavior, sensation-seeking, and status-seeking.

Risk Factors

• Dynamic vs. static risk factors.

• ADHD:

  • Risk factor for adult offending.

  • High in heritability.

  • More prevalent among males.

• Conduct disorder.

Agnew's Super Traits Theory

• Low self-control and irritability are the two super traits.

• Interact with four domains: family, school, peers, and work.

• Super traits evoke negative responses from people in these domains, worsening behavior.

Sampson and Laub's Life Course Theory (Age-Graded Developmental Theory)

• Social control theory incorporating adult social bonds.

• Theory of desistance from crime.

• Turning points:

  • Getting married.

  • Finding a decent job.

  • Moving to a new neighborhood.

  • Joining the military.

Moffitt's Dual Taxonomy (Dual Pathway)

• Developed from a 40-year study.

• Three classifications:

  • Life-Course Persistent Offenders (LCPs).

  • Adolescent-Limited Offenders (ALs).

  • Abstainers.

• LCPs:

  • Begin offending prior to puberty and continue into adulthood.

  • Examples: biting, kicking at age 4; shoplifting, truancy at age 10.

  • Biological risk factors: low IQ, hyperactivity, slow heart rate, low impulse control.

  • Environmental risk factors: single teenage mother, low socioeconomic status, inconsistent discipline, abuse or neglect.

  • Small group (7%) but account for 50% of offenses.

• ALs:

  • Adequately socialized by competent parents.

  • Maturity gap.

  • Association with delinquent peers is important for both ALs and LCPs, but for different reasons.

    • LCPs show antisocial behavior before associating with delinquent peers.

    • ALs begin offending by associating with delinquent peers.

    • LCPs often lead antisocial peer groups.

    • ALs learn from the antisocial peers.

• Snares: Relate to desistance.

• Desistance for ALs depends on the depth of integration into the antisocial peer group.

• Good attachments and a store of social capital can pull them out of offending.

Articles to Review

• ENA theory article (located under articles on Canvas).

• Two articles on Moffitt's theory (maturity gap and genetic influences on offending, located under final exam materials on Canvas).

• Focus on the main findings, not specific study details.