Reordering the World, 1750-1850

North American, Spanish, French, and British Territories circa 1700

• New France
• British Colonies
• New Spain

French Revolution

• October 5, 1789: Women march to Versailles to protest the high cost of bread.
• 1789: People of Paris storm the Bastille.
• Reign of Terror
• Guillotine: Used on King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.
• Versailles
• 3 Estates:
  • 1st Estate: Clergy
  • 2nd Estate: Nobles
  • 3rd Estate: Everyone else
• Taxes and the high cost of bread caused poverty, hunger, and riots.

US Declaration of Independence

• July 4, 1776: The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America.

Chapter 15, Reordering the World, 1750-1850

Introduction

• The principles of the US War of Independence and the French Revolution were based on Enlightenment ideas and laid the foundations for a new era based on policies considered radical at the time.
• Discussion and spread of new ideas by "philosophes" (lovers of knowledge, e.g., Baron de Montesquieu, John Locke, Voltaire, Adam Smith) about governance, equality, citizenship, religious tolerance, social structures, hierarchy, and economics in Western Europe during the Enlightenment.
• Most who welcomed new ideas were wealthy business people who resented being seen as "common" and without real political power (the bourgeoisie in France).
• Some in positions of power also welcomed these new ideas (nobles, aristocracy, clergy, church leadership).
• Ideas were brought to the Americas by elites/educated groups, mostly not nobles and without political power.
• As a result, colonies of European countries (Britain, France, Portugal, Spain) in the Americas gained independence in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• More and more, it was believed that governments should enact laws that apply to "all" (except enslaved persons, women, colonized indigenous people/subjects).
• More and more, it was believed that free speech, free markets, free labor (freely chosen labor), and governments chosen by freeborn men should benefit "all."
• Nation-states, or countries whose borders were based on the common culture, ethnicity, and language of the people who resided there emerged.
  • Old way of thinking: if larger, more powerful empire/country wanted to conquer a small country, they could and would - "might is right."
• However, as Europeans professed ideas about equality and freedom, they did not grant the same rights to all in their colonies; and once they lost colonies in the Americas, they targeted Asia & Africa for a new kind of colonization or imperialism.

Revolutionary Transformations and New Languages of Freedom

• 18th century: trade and travel carried new Enlightenment ideas around the Atlantic world (between Europe & Americas) & created pressures for reform.
• Ideas about:
  • Governance (i.e., social contract, more representation, more voting, popular sovereignty).
    • Popular sovereignty: supreme power or authority of government to govern is granted by people/citizens).
  • Equality (i.e., natural rights granted by our creator).
  • Nationalism (i.e., individual ethnic groups should have their own countries, not be controlled by empires).
  • Economics (i.e., less government control of the economy).
  • Justice (i.e., abolition of torture, accountability of rulers).
• First expressions/implementation of Enlightenment ideas where the people toppled their rulers:
  • Independence of Britain’s North American colonies (1776-1783).
  • French Revolution (1789-1799).
• Economic reformers argued that less government control/less regulation would lead to faster economic growth:
  • Adam Smith and others called for free trade (no tariffs, quotas, fees paid to government) because they believed it would lead to more efficient use of limited resources and benefit everyone.
• However, European & Euro American elites who fought for a freer world for themselves owned & exploited African slaves, restricted economic opportunities for those less wealthy, denied women equal treatment, sought to force Asian & African countries to trade with them only for educated and land owning men.

Political Reorderings

• Late in the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas about freedom and reason spread across the Atlantic World (Europe & Americas) via newspapers, pamphlets, books.
• More and more, readers began to discuss societies’ problems & to believe they had the right to participate in governance.
• In North America & in France, revolutions brought down monarchies & republics were created.
• Success of US War of Independence & French Revolution encouraged others in Caribbean, Central & South America to reject rule of monarchs.
• New institutions: written constitutions and parliamentary or other legislative bodies.

US War of Independence, 1776-1783

• Ended British rule of 13 colonies.
• First of various "revolutions" to shake the Atlantic world inspired by new ideas of freedom (Enlightenment ideas).
• British North American Colonies:
  • By the mid-18th century, British colonies in North America were very prosperous.
  • Port cities like Charleston, SC, Philadelphia, PA, New York, NY, Boston, MA saw inflows of slaves, migrants and manufactured goods and outflow of agricultural staples.
  • Genteel class of merchants & landowning planters dominated colonial affairs.
• Colonists constantly disputed land with each other and with Native Americans:
  • Planters struggled with independent farmers.
  • Children of farmers who were unable to inherit or acquire land near their parents moved westward and came into conflict with Amerindians.
• During the 7 Years’ War between France and England/GB, Amerindians/Native Americans allied with France because France was Britain’s rival.
  • "The enemy of my enemy is my friend."
  • Then, French lost & gave up North American colonies after the 7 Years’/French & Indian War.
• After that, as colonists in British colonies were seen as the aggressors taking Native American land, Amerindians/Native Americans allied with GB against colonists when the colonists fought to break away from GB; they saw colonists, not GB, as the aggressors taking land.
• As British colonists were considering breaking away from GB and while they fought the US War of Independence from the British, the British promised Native Americans protection & other concessions, but were unable to keep their promises because they did not have troops or financial strength to enforce concessions, protection.
• Asserting independence from Britain:
  • British King George III’s government insisted American colonists pay for protection (ex: 7 Years’/French & Indian War- expensive!).
  • Taxes were imposed on various items & more effort was placed on putting an end to smuggling by colonists evading mercantilist restrictions on trade.
  • American colonists protested taxes because they did not have representation in British Parliament ("taxation without representation").
  • The loss of British North American colonies/victory of US independence was a totally unexpected and humiliating loss for the British, the supreme power in the Atlantic world at the time.
• 1775-resistance in the form of petitions & boycotts eventually became the US War of Independence (colonial militia vs British troops).
• 1776-Thomas Paine published "Common Sense", a pamphlet that argued for independence.
• Fall, 1775-2nd Continental Congress (1st was Sept.-Oct. 1774) met & by July 1776 they wrote the Declaration of Independence (adapted some of Paine’s ideas & based on Enlightenment ideas of natural rights/rights all are born with & that no one can deny).
• The Declaration of Independence was also based on political philosopher John Locke’s ideas of social contract (as opposed to Divine Right Theory) which stated that the law binds the ruler and the governed and that the governed had the right to rebel if the government broke the "social contract."
• Declaration of Independence declared "all men are created equal", further deteriorating social class distinctions in the colonies (common men no longer automatically deferred to gentlemen of higher rank).
• Voting rights were only given to white, property-owning males once the US became independent because the elites/liberals had led the independence movement to gain more rights and power for themselves (not women, indigenous or enslaved persons).
• Many slaves fought against their tormentors/colonists & for the British in US War of Independence since the British offered them freedom in exchange for military service.
• British were defeated in 1781, but did not recognize American independence until 1783.
• Building a Republican Government:
  • Colonists agreed their government would not be a monarchy.
    • The short US Constitution actually says that no one will receive the title of “sir."
  • First, a loose confederation of relatively autonomous/independent states was created to ensure “states’ rights” through Articles of Confederation (approved Nov 1777, during the war, implemented 1781).
  • The nation struggled with local rebellions, foreign relations (national government was made very weak on purpose) & crushing debt.
    • New US govt owed a lot of money to French, who had loaned money to fight the war of independence against the British-"the enemy of my enemy is my friend."
  • Due to many challenges of Articles of Confederation, a Convention was held in Philadelphia, 1787 to “modify” Articles of Confederation, but a whole new document was created - the US Constitution.
  • Created Stronger national government (opposed by Anti-Federalists; supported by Federalists).
  • Did not include a Bill of Rights (a list of rights of the people, protections from government as British people were used to due to English Bill of Rights).
  • 1st 10 amendments to the US Constitution-Bill of Rights.
  • Did not abolish slavery (leaders in slave states, mostly in the south, argued that the national government didn’t have power to abolish slavery).
  • Created a legislative branch with equal representation in Senate for each state & representation based on population in House of Representatives (Connecticut Compromise).
  • Dealt with the slavery issue via the 3/5 Compromise:
    • Slaves (who were considered and treated like property) would be counted as 3/5 of a person so slave states would have larger populations and more representation in the House of Representatives.
  • After the US became an independent country, debate over slavery persisted, especially as areas west were conquered & questions arose about them becoming slave or free states.
  • 1800-Thomas Jefferson became US President and he sent pioneers out to explore and seize new lands in North America.
  • Various protests against slavery occurred, an example is Gabriel Prosser’s slave protest in Virginia:
    • Raised the army of slaves to seize the state capital at Richmond.
    • Won support from White artisans & laborers who were losing out on jobs and income to businesses with slaves/that had slaves to produce products or offer services.
    • Ended in many slaves being executed.
  • Successful defiance of Britain via US independence, Europe’s most powerful empire, and the establishment of a non-monarchical republican form of government sent shock waves through Americas & Europe; paved the way for other revolts over the next decades and into the 19th century.

Similarities Between American Independence and French Revolution

• Both were based on Enlightenment ideals (more representative governments, equality, religious tolerance, less government-controlled economies).
• Both began with calls of reform, and when kings rejected these requests, both the American colonies and France ended up with a complete change of government.
• Both resulted from rising up against monarchies (British king George III; French king Louis XVI) & against high taxes on “middle class” landowners, business owners & professionals.
• Both broke out after years of discontent with leaders who imposed their will on the people (British King George III created new taxes on North American colonists who did not have representation in Parliament to pay for the 7 Years’ War; French kings’ power grabs since 1614, lavish spending & imposing taxes on small middle class/bourgeoisie).
• Both sought a government responsible to its people (Enlightenment idea) and eventually set up a republican form of government (no monarchy).
• Both were led by highly educated & wealthy elites who sought more power & freedom for themselves while enslaving others, restricted economic opportunities for less educated & poor, denied women equal treatment & sought to force Asian & African countries to trade with them.
• Both led to decreased power of the established church (Anglican Church in British colonies; Catholic Church in France).

Differences Between US Independence and French Revolution

• British N. American colonies became independent & created a new country in a new land (after removing, taking land of & killing Native Americans); France transformed from its traditional, centuries-old style of government (absolute monarchy & 3 social classes: Clergy, Nobles, commoners) to a limited monarchy, then to a republic and then to an empire under Napoleon.
• North American colonies had a lot of independence; they were far from Britain & kings before George III ignored them, which created more resentment when George III started trying to control them.
• North American British colonists came from various social classes, but had to work together to create colonies & colonial governments highly influenced by & based on Enlightenment ideas, which diluted some social class distinctions (colonies had less concrete social class structures than what existed in Britain); In France, new laws “removed” titles & social class distinctions, but people’s ideas about social class aren’t changed so easily, class distinctions remained strong in practice.

French Revolution, 1789-1799

• Partly inspired by the US War of Independence, French elites/bourgeoisie began to call for more equality (for themselves); results inspired rebels & terrified rulers around the globe.
• It was the result of a perfect storm of different things coming together:
  1. A bad harvest led to a shortage of food, high food prices, and riots.
  2. Overspending of royals caught up & France was bankrupt; Louis XVI suffered consequences of predecessors’ (& his) lavish lifestyles; taxes raised on wealthy professionals.
  3. Nobles resented that kings had been diminishing their power over previous 200 years.
  4. Wealthy & elite bourgeoisie (business owners & professionals without noble origins) resented paying high taxes & being lumped into social class that included peasants.
• Origins & Outbreak:
  • Louis XVI (ruled France 1775-93) spent huge sums to support North American colonists against Britain (his rival) & overloaded an already high debt created by his predecessors.
  • Louis XVI hired Jacques Necker, a wealthy/successful banker, as his finance minister; Necker suggested Louis XVI raise taxes on the clergy (1st estate) & nobles (2nd estate) who paid very few taxes; everyone else (3rd estate) paid most taxes (3rd estate included bourgeoisie or professionals, business owners, etc as well as peasants).
  • Clergy (1st Estate) & nobles (2nd Estate) refused to pay more taxes & got Necker fired.
  • Although the French Legislature, Estates General, had been dismissed in 1614, the 1st & 2nd Estates usually had similar goals, & when they Estates General had met in the past, they voted together, outvoting 3rd Estate.
  • Meanwhile, there was a bad harvest/very little food (i.e., bread) led to higher prices & bread riots.
  • Nobles were angry that French kings had been usurping power for about 200 years.
  • The bourgeoisie wanted to have political power.
  • Expecting nothing to change, but to appease rioters & critics, at the end of 1788, Louis XVI told each of the 3 Estates to choose representatives so they can meet in 5 months at the Palace of Versailles (fancy palace in a town called Versailles, 12 or so miles away from Paris, which was remodeled at great expense by Louis XIV in the 1600s).
  • May, 1789, representatives from all 3 estates met at Versailles; began having serious debates & made major change: Estates General, where each estate had one vote, became National Assembly, where each representative had a vote (NOT what Louis XVI, nobles, clergy expected or wanted).
  • Mostly, the bourgeoisie who represented the 3rd Estate were the ones pushing for one vote per representative instead of one vote per Estate or class, but some clergy & nobles also believed in Enlightenment ideas & supported this type of representation.
  • While King Louis XVI & the royals enjoyed themselves at Versailles as if nothing would change, representatives actually debated & Louis XVI locked them out of their conference room during a break.
  • They walked to tennis courts & made “Tennis Court Oath” to stay until they wrote a constitution (refused to be dismissed as had been done in 1614 by Louis XIII).
  • News of the lockout traveled to Paris; Parisians feared the king would crush the reform movement/send the military to Paris to put down bread riots.
  • July 14, 1789, a mob attacked the Bastille (medieval armory & prison where many had been tortured) looking for weapons to defend themselves against potential French military action to put down riots, no weapons were found, the commanding officer was beheaded, and guards were killed.
  • The king did not call out the military, but news of the king’s attempt at stopping debating & expectation of repression spread to countryside & peasants burned down manor houses (from feudal times) & destroyed records of dues owed.
  • August, 1789 - The National Assembly (still meeting & debating at Versailles) abolished clergy & noble privileges & declared a new era of "liberty, equality, fraternity" (liberty had meant a privilege granted by a king).
• Revolutionary Transformations:
  • Aug. 1789-National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen while at Versailles.
    • Inspired by the American Declaration of Independence.
    • Guaranteed all French citizens inviolable liberties (cannot be violated by authorities).
    • Gave men equality under the law.
    • Dynastic and aristocratic privileges in Europe were threatened.
  • Women demanded more rights but were largely ignored.
  • The National Assembly created the 1st of 3 governments run by the bourgeoisie during the French Revolution (1789-1799).
  • Oct. 1789-mob marched to Versailles, stormed living area where Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette were, Louis XVI accepted the Declaration of the Rights of Man; the crowd forced Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette & family to go to Paris (they remained in house arrest at Tuileries Palace until killed in 1793).
  • By 1790, divisions between the French emerged as changes to the French government were implemented:
    • Clergy and religious people (including peasants) were upset that government changes included taking control over the Church/taking power away from the Church; taking & selling Church lands to raise money.
    • Different bourgeoisies argued over how best to govern.
    • Peasants, who were religious & traditional, resented anti-Church & modern ideas of the bourgeoisie.
  • 1791-new constitution, France became a limited/constitutional monarchy.
  • 1791-other monarchs (Emperor of Austria & king of Prussia) threatened new French leaders regarding holding the king and queen (& other nobles, clergy throughout Paris) hostage & said they would fight to protect the monarchy (emperor of Austria was Marie Antoinette’s brother).
  • 1792-French revolutionaries/liberals running the government went to war against various European countries (fighting continued until 1815).
• The Terror (late 1792-July, 1794):
  • September, 1792-”September Massacres”-ordinary citizens stormed locations/prisons where nobles & priests accused of political offenses were being held; many prisoners (nobles, clergy) were killed.
  • A Radical group of revolutionaries/liberals/bourgeoisie within Jacobins (political party) took control of the legislature (2nd of 3 governments run by a group of bourgeoisie in 10 years of the French Revolution).
  • The Right to vote extended to all male citizens (not just property owners).
  • The monarchy was abolished, and a republic was established; another/new constitution was written.
  • Lands of nobles were seized (to sell & raise money), noble titles were abolished.
  • Louis XVI was executed for treason in Jan 1793, and Marie Antoinette was executed in Oct. 1793.
  • Created the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre.
  • Maximilien Robespierre (extreme Jacobin):
    • Lawyer, politician, leader of the Committee of Public Safety 1793-1794.
    • One of the chief architects of the Reign of Terror (hasty trials, about 40,000 killed, some died from disease in prison; goal: “save the revolution” from those who wanted return to monarchy & much Church control).
    • Embraced Jean Jacques Rousseau’s idea of general will (good of all is more important than individual rights) as the source of legitimate law.
    • Supported by sans culottes (people who did not wear fancy pants, peasants, workers).
    • Promoted religious toleration, wanted to abolish slavery.
    • Believed France could achieve republic of virtue only through the use of terror (explained necessity of Guillotine Feb. 5, 1794); eventually arrested & executed (July 27, 1794)/end of Reign of Terror.
  • 1794-French army numbered 800,000 soldiers, the world’s largest; most officers came from middle & lower classes.
  • Soldiers pushed foreign armies off French soil & then waged war to “liberate” Europeans from absolute rulers (European leaders feared “French plague”).

The Directory

• After the end of the Reign of Terror, a new "Directory" was placed in control (3rd of 3 governments run by the bourgeoisie in the 10-year period of the French Revolution).
• The Directory was a period of reaction against radical Jacobins who led during the Reign of Terror.
• 1795-another/new constitution was written:
  • A five-man “directory” took control of France.
  • A two-house legislature made laws.
• The Directory was weak, but dictatorial, and faced challenges:
  • War with Austria, Great Britain (peace made with Spain, Prussia).
  • Corrupt leaders stole money, bread prices continued to rise, sans culottes rioted & were suppressed.
  • Emigres who supported the monarchy (royalists) & devout Catholics returned to France & wanted “the good old days” of monarchy & Church privileges.
  • Set up a system of elite schools.
  • Helped the French economy recover.
• Due to continued chaos (high food prices, violence, instability, corruption & government control), politicians and French people turned to Napoleon Bonaparte, perceived to be a military hero who could establish order (he had spread exaggerated rumors about his military ability & success).

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Put security & order ahead of social reform.
• The regime retained significant revolutionary changes (especially those associated with more efficient state government).
• Eased religious tensions by making an accord with the Catholic Church.
• Retreated from republican principles (took the crown from Pope & crowned himself emperor in 1804).
• Established a system of rational tax collection & created a civil legal code (Napoleonic Code).
• The Emperor Napoleon in his study at Tuileries by Jacques-Louis David, 1812:
  • Size: more than five and a half feet tall.
  • Propaganda-celebrates Napoleon.
  • Napoleon wanted to be identified with qualities of strength & leadership (wearing military uniform; the chair’s fabric has golden bees, a symbol of diligence; the book by Plutarch contains biographies of powerful generals; the lion table decoration is based on an ancient Egyptian design; the artist equates Napoleon's empire with great civilizations of the ancient world).
  • The burnt-out candle, time on the clock (4:13 am), and disheveled look (messy hair, needs shave) shows he has worked all night.
  • Wall decorations include symbols of wealth, power, victory from ancient Greece & Rome.
  • The Legion of Honor medal - a high honor, Napoleon awarded it to himself for his great skill in battle.
  • The scroll on the desk shows the Napoleonic Code (became the basis for French law, some laws are still in effect today).
  • The pen used to sign documents is on the desk.
  • The scroll on the floor is the artist's signature (In Latin, it says: "LVD.CI.DAVID OPVS / 1812”).

Napoleonic Era, 1799-1815

• Launched a series of military campaigns to build a vast empire.
• Soldiers spread enlightenment ideas throughout Europe (exactly what European conservatives/monarchs & emperors had feared, “French Plague” spread).
• Local populations first welcomed the French as liberators from the old order, then agreed that foreign aggressors and occupiers (French) were not truly liberators; throughout the 1800s, European populations rebelled against the old order & fought for modern/liberal ideas.
• France faced fierce popular resistance from soldiers & peasants who formed bands of rebels called guerrilleros in Portugal & Spain; British joined them.
• Ethnic “Germans” & “Italians” began focusing on their national traditions & borders more as a result of the Enlightenment idea of nationalism spreading (ironic-part of Napoleon’s legacy of attempting to rule all Europe was laying the foundation for nationalism).
• Napoleon extended the empire from Iberian Peninsula to Austrian & Prussian borders.
• In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia, but his soldiers were overstretched & undersupplied to survive a harsh winter.
• Because Napoleon was unsuccessful in conquering Russia, it, unlike other European countries during 1800s remained “free” of the “French Plague."
• An 1825 "Decembrist" revolt of the Russian elite who were familiar with and supported western European life and Enlightenment ideas, called for a constitutional monarchy or even a republic to replace Russian authoritarianism, despotism; conservatives & peasants alike believed in divine right of the czar, so this revolt/Decembrist movement failed.
• Major European powers united against Napoleon at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) & Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium.
• Throughout Europe during the post-Napoleon 1800s, the old/conservative ideas of absolute monarchy, divine right, and church power clashed with the new/modern enlightenment ideas of limited government, a constitution, natural/inviolable/unalienable rights, extending suffrage, nationalism, and free trade.

Revolution in Saint-Domingue (Haiti)

• Unlike most of British North America, revolution came from the lowest social class - those enslaved (freedom meant liberation from France & emancipation for those enslaved).
• The breakdown in France provided an opportunity for colonies to break away, i.e., Saint Domingue (modern-day Haiti):
  1. White settlers wanted political control/self-government and more free trade/break away from French mercantilist trade restrictions.
  2. Free blacks who owned slaves (had been slaves but were emancipated) wanted to end racial discrimination against them/of other property holders; without criticizing slavery.
  3. Slaves invoked revolutionary language to denounce masters & air grievances.
• When French revolutionaries/bourgeoisie running France abolished slavery in 1793 (same people who carried out the Reign of Terror) former slaves took control of Saint-Domingue which became independent of France in 1804.
• Western European countries like Britain & Spain; & US became afraid (slavery was legal in British & Spanish colonies & in US); they did not recognize Haitian independence until 1862.
• US President Thomas Jefferson worried the example in Haiti might inspire slave revolts in the US & throughout the Americas.

Revolutions in Spanish and Portuguese America

• As in Haiti, colonized and subordinated people of color (of African & indigenous descent) took advantage of European political instability & used European Enlightenment ideas to challenge the status quo.
• People in the Americas were rebelling for different reasons; ex: 1780s-indigenous people demanded freedom from forced labor & white colonial landowners rebelled against mandatory consumption of Spanish items/mercantilist policies; Spanish forces took many years to fight & eliminate rebels.
• The Uprising scared Iberian Americans (peninsulares, creoles, landowners) who feared indigenous & slave majorities; this caused them to renew their loyalty to crown.
• Eventually, the French Revolution & Napoleonic invasions of Iberian Peninsula eliminated ties between Spain & Portugal & their American colonies.

Brazil & Constitutional Monarchy

• Prized Portuguese colony; independence came without political turmoil or social revolution.
• Royals & associates left Portugal for Brazil when French invaded in 1807; in Brazil, they enacted reforms in administration, agriculture, manufacturing; established schools, hospitals, library.
• Brazil became the center of the Portuguese empire; the royal family shared power with local upper-class planters; the economy prospered, more demand for slaves; slavery expanded.
• 1821-King John VI returned to Portugal, but his son Pedro remained, declared Brazil independent & established a constitutional monarchy; local elites (ex: plantation owners) embraced Pedro’s rule out of fear of slave revolt.

Mexico’s Independence

• 1807-Napoleon occupied Spain and Mexico was left without a leader/emperor appointed by Spain; caused a crisis that led Mexico to secede/separate.
• Mexico’s creoles identified more as Mexicans; as the Spanish government lost control, Mexican generals proclaimed independence in 1821.

Other South American Revolutions

• Spain’s loss of control and separation from its American colonies was more prolonged & militarized than the British loss of the 13 colonies.
• Simon Bolivar & Jose de San Martin were influenced by Enlightenment texts & ideas.
• Both revered Napoleonic France as a model state built on military heroism & constitutional proclamations.
• 1810-24-Bolivar, San Martin & others like them waged extended wars of independence against Spain.
• Soon, social groups fought each other and led to civil wars throughout South America.
• Individual identities also emerged and the result was unstable individual republics.
• Conclusion: Wealthy elites gained liberty, but at the expense of poorer, non-European, and mixed populations.