Civil Rights & The Great Society in America

Background to Civil Rights

• Post-World War II factors led to a demand for Civil Rights.

• Jim Crow laws persisted in the South, enforcing "separate but equal".

• Redlining and ghettoized neighborhoods were common in Northern states.

• World War II spurred militancy among African Americans who fought against discrimination abroad but faced segregation at home.

• The NAACP initiated campaigns against discrimination, supported by young lawyers and financial backing.

• President Truman made early attempts at equality:

  • Desegregated the armed forces in 1948.

  • Proposed "Fair Deal" programs, including the Fair Employment Practice Commission (FEPC) to combat job discrimination, but these were defeated by southern legislators.

• The 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown v. Board of Education, invalidated the "separate but equal" doctrine, reversing Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

  • Ruled that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal.

• In 1957, the Little Rock Nine faced resistance entering a segregated school; President Eisenhower used federal troops to enforce desegregation.

• Resistance to integration included:

  • Southern school districts closing schools.

  • White families enrolling children in "segregation academies".

  • White flight to suburban areas, leaving black families in inner cities.

The Fight for Civil Rights

• Americans increasingly protested to end Jim Crow laws and segregation.

• Protests included marches, boycotts, and sit-ins.

• In 1955, Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her bus seat sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

  • The boycott ended with a Supreme Court decision declaring Alabama's segregation law unconstitutional.

• By the early 1960s, civil rights leaders were dissatisfied with the pace of change.

• Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged as a leader, placing civil rights on the national agenda.

• On August 28, 1963, King led the March on Washington, advocating for racial justice and economic equality.

• In the mid-1960s, President Lyndon B. Johnson embraced an activist civil rights agenda.

  • Civil Rights Act (1964): Made segregation in public facilities illegal, created the Equal Opportunity Employment Commission (EEOC), and banned gender discrimination.

  • Voting Rights Act (1965): Provided federal protection for voting rights and banned discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes.

A Call for Radical Change

• Some believed radical change was necessary to end racism.

• Discontent was evident in segregated cities of the Northeast.

• Leaders like Malcolm X drew attention to civil rights issues beyond the rural South.

  • Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965.

• Groups like the Nation of Islam and Black Panther Party advocated for a militant approach and a separate Black America.

• King's assassination in April 1968 led to increased urban unrest and further growth of groups like the Black Panther Party.

The Great Society

• The early 1960s in America was seen as a period of prosperity and promise.

• President Kennedy introduced the "New Frontier" concept, addressing unfulfilled hopes, science, space, peace, war, ignorance, prejudice, poverty, and surplus.

• President Johnson aimed to build a "Great Society" to rejuvenate America economically, politically, and socially.

• Both Kennedy and Johnson administrations expanded the role of the state, U.S. power globally, and freedoms for Americans.

Equal Rights

• Kennedy established the President’s Committee on the Status of Women in 1961.

• Johnson focused on Civil Rights legislation, including the 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act.

Tackling Poverty

• The Kennedy administration initiated programs to reduce domestic poverty.

  • Housing: Omnibus Housing Bill 1961 created federally subsidized housing projects.

  • Unemployment: Manpower Development Training Act 1962 introduced job training schemes.

  • Medical care: Proposed Medicare in 1962 but was defeated in Congress.

International Relations

• The Kennedy administration created the Peace Corps to build relations with developing countries.

• Alliance for Progress was established to give aid to Latin American countries.

• Kennedy and Johnson liberalized immigration policies.

The Space Race

• Kennedy supported NASA and increased funding to lead the space race.

• Aim: man on the moon by the end of the 1960s (achieved in 1969).

A Changing Society

• Protests and demands for social change:

  • NOW (National Organization of Women) founded in 1966 for women’s rights.

  • Cesar Chavez helped establish the United Farm Workers Union.

  • American Indian Movement (AIM) fought for better treatment of Native Americans.

  • Stonewall riots in 1969 led to the Gay Liberation Movement.

  • First Earth Day held on April 22, 1970, to protest environmental degradation.

Counterculture

• The youth counterculture rejected traditional American values.

• Hippies formed a new culture rooted in protesting the Vietnam War, promoting peace, love, and communal living.

• Mantra: “Tune in, turn on, and drop out.”