Africa and the Outside World: 1500-1880s
6.1.1 North East and Northern Africa: The Funj Sultanate (1504–1821)
The history of Nubia (present-day Sudan) shifted from Christian to Muslim rule in the 14th–16th centuries.
In 1275, the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alwa were annexed by the Egyptian Mamluks.
Arab clans migrated into Nubia, spreading Islam and gaining supremacy by the early 16th century.
Rise of the Funj
The Funj were cattle-keeping pastoralists who rose in Nubia around the early 1500s.
Their origin is debated:
Some link them to the Shilluk people of the Nile.
Others to Bornu near Lake Chad.
Some to northern Ethiopia.
Though originally followers of indigenous beliefs, they soon converted to Islam.
In 1504, the Funj established the Funj Sultanate with its capital at Sennar on the Blue Nile.
Conflict and Expansion
The Funj faced a rival Arab Muslim state in Nubia known as the Abdallabi.
Led by Amara Dunqas, the Funj fought and defeated the Abdallabi, though later used their support in administration.
The Sultanate expanded into Nilotic Sudan and promoted Islamization.
Arab clans increasingly intermarried with local Nubians and became culturally Africanized.
Conflict with Ethiopia
The Funj Sultanate clashed with the Christian Ethiopian Empire:
Around 1620, Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607–32) attacked Funj territory, looting several villages.
In 1742 and 1744, Emperor Iyasu II (r. 1730–55) launched campaigns.
The second campaign (1744) ended in defeat for the Ethiopian army by a Funj–Arab coalition.
Decline and Fall
By the 18th century, the Funj Sultanate expanded its rule into Kordofan and Darfur.
It remained a dominant regional power until it was conquered by Egyptian forces under Mohammed Ali in 1821.
The Rise of the Moroccan Sultanate
Unification and Resistance
In the 16th century, Morocco emerged as the only North African state not under Ottoman rule.
The Sa'did dynasty, of Arab origin, unified Morocco.
Under Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur (r. 1578–1603):
Morocco reached its peak of power.
Defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of al-Kasr al-Kabir (1578), securing independence.
Drove out European powers from the North African coast.
West African Campaign
In 1591, Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur launched a military expedition against the Songhay Empire in West Africa.
Sent a modern army armed with firearms across the Sahara.
Captured Gao, Timbuktu, and seized gold and slaves.
This led to the collapse of the Songhay Empire and decline of Timbuktu’s scholarly culture.
Negative Consequences
Although the campaign enriched Morocco initially, it disrupted the trans-Saharan gold trade.
Trade routes shifted toward Tripoli, Tunis, Cairo, and European coastal traders.
After Ahmad al-Mansur’s death in 1603, Morocco suffered dynastic conflicts and split into rival Fez and Marrakesh sultanates.
The Alawid Restoration
In 1669, the Alawid dynasty rose to power and restored national unity.
They reorganized the army, incorporating West African captives.
However, the Moroccan garrison left in the Niger Bend (called Arma) became autonomous:
Settled in the region, married locals, and ruled small independent states.
Stopped paying tribute to the Moroccan Sultan by the mid-17th century.
The Arma regime collapsed in 1737, when Tuareg Berbers took control of Timbuktu and the Niger bend.
6.1.2. Benin, Oyo, Dahomey, and Ashante
Empire of Benin
Developed by the Edo people in present-day southern Nigeria during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Reached its peak at the end of the 15th century.
The capital, Benin City, was notable for:
Being walled, with wide streets and wooden houses.
Renowned bronze sculptures, considered among Africa’s finest artworks.
Prosperity was linked to ocean trade, especially with the Portuguese and Dutch.
Traded pepper and dyed cotton cloth for European manufactured goods.
Decline began in the 17th century due to internal issues and external pressures.
Empire of Oyo
Formed in the 17th century by uniting several Yoruba chieftaincies in present-day southwestern Nigeria.
Became a dominant power for over a century.
Economy was mainly based on:
Agriculture (the backbone of the economy).
Craft production, including spinning, dyeing, and metalwork.
Oyo developed a strong cavalry-based military, which helped expand and control its territory.
Disintegration in the 19th century was caused by:
Invasions from Muslim Fulani forces.
Internal revolts from subject territories.
The Fulani later took control of Hausa lands and formed the Sokoto Caliphate in northern Nigeria.
This Islamic state was inspired and led by Usman dan Fodio, who led a series of Jihads in the early 1800s.
Kingdom of Dahomey
Gained independence in 1625 in what is now Benin (formerly Dahomey).
Reached its peak in the mid-19th century.
Played a major role in the transatlantic slave trade, trading captured slaves for European goods.
Known for its women warriors, called the Abomey Amazons:
Elite female military units, 2,000–6,000 strong.
Well-trained, disciplined, and effective in battle.
Led by Seh-Dong-Hong-Beh, a powerful female military leader.
Participated in wars against neighbors, such as Abeokuta (1851 & 1864).
Fought fiercely against French colonial expansion (1889–1894).
After French colonial conquest, the Amazon regiments were dissolved by the late 19th century.
Kingdom of Ashante (Ashanti)
A leading Akan kingdom in present-day Ghana.
Founded at the end of the 17th century under the leadership of the Ashantehene (king).
Achieved unity among Akan groups and centralized government.
Main sources of wealth:
Tributes from subject peoples.
Gold trade with the Songhay Empire.
Later, slave trade with the Portuguese at the Gold Coast.
Kola nuts were also traded with northern savanna regions.
Traded gold and slaves in exchange for guns, textiles, and European manufactured goods.
Capital city Kumasi was a well-developed and organized city.
In the 18th century, the Ashante expanded northward into savanna regions to protect gold routes.
In the early 19th century, they expanded southward to coastal areas to control access to European trade.
Government reforms:
Appointed officials based on merit rather than only on nobility.
Hired Europeans to serve in various technical and administrative posts.
6.1.3. Eastern Africa
Kingdom of Buganda
Located in the Great Lakes region, northwest of Lake Victoria, in modern Uganda.
A powerful and centralized kingdom by the 18th century.
Rulers held the title of Kabaka (king), who exercised wide authority.
Economy was based on:
Agriculture, with fertile lands supporting banana and root crop farming.
Local and regional trade.
Handicraft production, especially woodworking and bark cloth.
Buganda expanded its territory and became one of the most influential kingdoms in East Africa.
Kingdom of Rwanda
Located southwest of Buganda, in modern Rwanda.
Society was organized along ethnic and class lines:
Tutsi (pastoralists) were the ruling class.
Hutu (farmers) were the majority population.
The Tutsi elite collected tribute in the form of agricultural produce and livestock from both Hutu farmers and Tutsi pastoralists.
Centralized monarchy maintained strict control over land and labor.
6.1.4. West and South-Central African Kingdoms
The Kingdom of Kongo
Founded around 1400 in west-central Africa, located south of the Congo River in today’s DR Congo and northern Angola.
Inhabited by Bantu-speaking Bakongo people—skilled in agriculture, iron smelting, weaving, pottery, and metalwork.
Ruler known as the Manikongo governed a highly centralized state with a strong bureaucracy.
Capital: Mbanza Kongo (now San Salvador), divided into six provinces.
Regional governors collected tribute from local chiefs in the form of goods like ivory, millet, lion/leopard skins, and palm wine.
Economy based on farming, regional trade, and coastal trade.
Main trade goods: iron tools, baskets, fine clothing, pottery, ivory, copper, and slaves.
Weaving and smelting were high-status professions, practiced mainly by nobles.
From the late 15th century, the Portuguese intensified the trans-Atlantic slave trade, making Kongo a major supplier.
The kingdom began to decline by the late 16th century due to:
Internal unrest caused by Portuguese involvement in slavery.
Invasions by the Jaga (Imbangala) from the Luba-Lunda region.
Torwa, Mutapa, and Rozwi States
Torwa State
Emerged in the late 15th century after the decline of Great Zimbabwe.
Located in Matabeleland, southwest of the Great Zimbabwe site.
Capital: Khami (Danangombe), known for its advanced stone architecture.
Discovery of Chinese and European imports at Khami proves its long-distance trade connections.
Mutapa Empire (Mwene Mutapa)
Founded by Mutota, a northern Shona leader, in the late 15th century.
Expanded under Matope, his son—conquered land from the Kalahari Desert to Mozambique.
Kings held the title Mwene Mutapa (“master pillager”); later known to the Portuguese as the Monomotapa Kingdom.
Controlled trade of gold and ivory through Zambezi Valley to Swahili coast (Sena and Tete).
Resisted Portuguese control until mid-17th century but eventually weakened and subjugated.
Rozwi Empire
Founded by Changamire in the 1670s, after breaking from the Mutapa.
His followers, called the Rozwi (“destroyers”), became a powerful military force.
Conquered the Torwa state in the 1680s and expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe Plateau in 1693.
The Rozwi state lasted until 1830, when it was destroyed by the Nguni and Ndebele invasions (caused by the rise of the Zulu Empire).
The Ndebele and Nguni established the Matabele Kingdom among the Shona people.
6.1.5. Southern Africa: The Zulu Kingdom
Southern Africa was home to Bantu-speaking peoples like the Venda, Sotho, Tsonga, Nguni, and Inhambane since at least the 15th century.
Large-scale state formation occurred later, primarily during the 19th century, as a response to:
Boer (Dutch settler) expansion from the Cape Colony.
Inter-tribal conflicts.
Growing British colonial ambitions.
The Zulu Kingdom
Formed as part of Bantu resistance to Boer expansion in the late 18th century.
Became dominant under Shaka Zulu (ruled 1818–1828), a brilliant military leader.
Shaka:
Reorganized the army into powerful regiments.
Introduced new military tactics and weapons (like the short stabbing spear, iklwa).
Unified many Nguni-speaking clans into a strong centralized state.
Was supported by his mother, Queen Nandi.
After Shaka’s assassination, the Zulu kingdom weakened due to:
Rival clan wars.
Growing threats from British expansion.
In the 1860s, after taking over the Cape Colony from the Dutch, the British defeated the Zulu Kingdom and other Bantu groups.
6.1.6 The Ottoman Conquest of North Africa
North Africa (except Morocco) was under nominal Ottoman rule from the 16th century until the early 19th century.
The Ottomans and Spaniards were the two rival powers fighting for control of the Maghreb region during the 16th century.
Key Factors in Ottoman Success:
Ottoman military superiority—especially their powerful navy and elite infantry called Janissaries.
Religious and cultural affinity with North African Arab and Berber Muslims, who often supported Ottoman efforts.
By the late 16th century, the Ottomans had expelled the Spanish from Ifriqiya (Tunisia), Algiers, and Tripolitania.
Conquest of Egypt and Expansion:
In 1517, the Ottomans defeated the Mamluks and took control of Egypt.
They expanded into Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and advanced as far south as the third cataract in Nubia (present-day Sudan) by the 1550s.
Arab and Berber nomadic groups were subdued and pacified.
Administration and Structure:
Governance: Ottoman provinces in North Africa were ruled by:
Pashas (viceroys) appointed from Istanbul.
Deys (military commanders) under the pashas.
Language and Elitism:
Turkish was the official language of administration.
Local Arabs and Berbers were excluded from top posts.
Military Forces:
Janissaries: Elite Turkish troops (15,000 in 17th century, reduced to 4,000 by 1830).
Spahis: Ottoman cavalry; respected more by locals as many were of mixed Turkish-Arab descent.
Administrative Divisions:
Provinces → Sanjaks (sub-provinces) → Districts.
Mutasarrif: Head of a sanjak, responsible to the Wali (provincial governor-general).
Districts governed by local Arab tribal chiefs under Ottoman supervision.
Reforms and Contributions:
Millet system introduced—religious communities were allowed limited autonomy.
Reforms attempted in land tenure, taxation, military service, and trade.
Trade and commerce were encouraged; firearms were traded across the Sahara.
Influence on Sub-Saharan Africa:
Firearms from North Africa helped in state-building in West Africa.
Example: Mai Idris Alooma of Kanem-Bornu (1571–1603) used Ottoman firearms to expand and consolidate his empire.
Decline of Ottoman Power:
By the 18th century, Ottoman control weakened:
Provinces like Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania, and Cyrenaica became practically independent.
Still sent tribute to the Sultan, maintaining nominal allegiance.
In Egypt, Mamluk beys and pashas governed with increasing independence.
Rise of Mohammed Ali and Senussi Movement:
In 1805, Mohammed Ali established a powerful dynasty in Egypt (lasted over 150 years).
In the 1840s, Mohammed Ben Ali as-Senussi founded the Senussi religious movement in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, promoting a return to the simplicity of early Islam.
French Colonization of Algeria:
In the 1830s–1840s, France occupied Algeria and pushed into the Sahara Desert.
French settlers (colons) increased rapidly:
About 40,000 settlers by the 1840s.
Reached 400,000 by the early 1880s.
6.2. Early Contacts Along the Western and Central African Coasts
North Africa had long-standing contact with Europe via the Mediterranean Sea. However, European interaction with other parts of Africa significantly increased in the 15th century through Portuguese maritime exploration.
Portuguese exploration was initiated and sponsored by Prince Henry the Navigator, aiming to:
Access West African gold sources directly.
Bypass Arab middlemen and Turkish control over land and sea trade routes to the East.
In 1415, the Portuguese occupied Ceuta in Morocco, marking their first foothold. The same year, they reached the Canary Islands (claimed by Spain). In 1418, they settled Madeira, and by 1460, Cape Verde was also explored. These islands became sugar plantation colonies using African slave labor.
Between 1430 and 1490, Portuguese navigators mapped the entire West African coast, reaching the Cape of Good Hope and then the Swahili coast on the east. This enabled Europe to bypass the Turkish-Arab blockade and gain direct access to the Far East trade.
The Portuguese also:
Explored Azores (1439).
Established trading posts on the Senegal coast (1446).
Used Atlantic islands as launch points for further exploration and trade.
In 1482, Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo River, claiming the area. They allied with the Ngola (king) of Ndongo (northern Angola), naming the region Angola after the royal title.
By 1580–1670, Portugal made settlements in Ndongo but faced resistance. Portuguese presence was largely limited to the coast (Luanda), due to strong opposition by locals, especially Queen Nzinga Mbande (1581–1663), a remarkable military and diplomatic leader who:
Resisted Portuguese for over 40 years.
Signed a peace treaty in 1656 on her terms.
Continued resistance until her death in 1663.
The Kingdom of Kongo:
Allied with the Portuguese from 1482.
Sent embassies to Portugal and received missionaries by 1491.
King Afonso I (r. 1507–42/43) adopted Catholicism, modeled his government after Portugal, and built churches.
Participated in the slave trade, becoming a major supplier to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Lost independence after Portuguese invasion and internal unrest in the late 17th century.
Portuguese expansion to East Africa:
In 1497–98, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape and reached Malindi and Mombasa, then continued to India.
His return encouraged Portugal to conquer Swahili ports, damaging their trade and culture.
Portugal established military and trade posts in Mozambique, seeking Zimbabwe's gold.
In 1573, the Portuguese gained access to some Mwene Mutapa mines and settled along the Zambezi River. By 1628–29, they used African mercenaries to install a puppet ruler.
However, in 1693, Changamire of the Rozwi expelled the Portuguese from the region.
By the end of the 17th century:
The Portuguese were also driven out of East African ports north of Mozambique by Omani Arabs from southeastern Arabia.
6.3. Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa
6.3.1. Slavery Inside Africa
Existence and Origin: Indigenous slavery existed in Africa from ancient times until the early 20th century. It was part of the internal social and economic system and also linked to external demands.
Methods of Acquisition:
Captured in warfare
Raiding and kidnapping
Purchased in markets
Given as tribute
Pawned due to debt (mortgaging)
Long-Distance Trade Routes:
Trans-Saharan route: from West Africa to North Africa
Ethiopia to Sudan and Egypt
Central Africa to the Bakongo and Ndongo kingdoms on the Atlantic coast
Roles of Slaves:
Domestic Use: In royal palaces, religious institutions, and households
Status Symbol: A large number of slaves indicated wealth and power
Marriage: Female slaves could become wives or concubines; often more expensive than male slaves
Economic Contribution:
Agriculture: Farming, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing
Trade: Porters, agents, merchants
Industry: Gold mining (Akan), salt making (Etsi, Borbor Fante), ironwork, weaving, and crafts
Military: Soldiers, guards, sometimes commanders
Administration: Heralds, translators, musicians, sword bearers, cooks, etc.
Integration and Rights:
Slaves often integrated through adoption or marriage
Examples: Tuareg, Bamba, Wolof, Mende, Bakongo, Lunda, Kerebe, Imbangala, Sena
Rights included:
Marriage (with slaves or free persons)
Inheriting property
Independent farming and income
Legal protection (only kings/chiefs could impose death)
Possibility of manumission (freedom)
Social mobility (could become village or house heads, even chiefs)
General Treatment:
Generally humane compared to other regions
Yet, slave identity was never fully erased despite integration
6.3.2. Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Slave Trade
Older than the Atlantic Slave Trade; included:
Trans-Saharan Trade: (8th–16th centuries)
Linked North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa
Trade goods: Salt, gold, and slaves
Major participants: Arabs and Berbers
Routes: Tagaza/Sijilmasa (Morocco) to Niger Delta; Ifriqya (Tunisia) to Lake Chad
Red Sea Trade:
Slaves taken from Ethiopia and Nubia
Sold in the Middle East, India, and North Africa
Intensified in the 19th century, especially from Ethiopian regions
Indian Ocean Trade:
Very ancient, expanded in the late 18th–19th centuries
Slaves exported from East Africa to:
Arabia and Persian Gulf: domestic and plantation labor
Indian Ocean islands (e.g., Mauritius, Reunion)
Demand grew due to sugar and coffee plantations
Key traders: Portuguese, Indian, Arab, Swahili
Main sources: Zambezi valley, Mozambique
19th century: Dominated by Omani Arabs and the Sultan of Zanzibar
6.3.3. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Origins and Duration: Started after Columbus's voyage (1492); lasted from the 16th to mid-19th century
Initial Need for Slaves:
Native Americans decimated by disease and violence
White labor (criminals/prisoners) failed due to disease
Africans were seen as more resistant to tropical diseases
European Involvement:
Portuguese: First to transport African slaves (1532)
Later joined by Dutch, French, British, Danes
Britain: Became largest slave-exporting nation in the 18th century
Three Phases:
Piratic Slave Trade (15th–late 16th century): Conducted by individual adventurers, not governments
Monopolistic Slave Trade (1580s–late 17th century):
Run by state-backed chartered companies
Key areas: Kongo Kingdom, Slave Coast (Nigeria)
Profitable trade: Buy slaves in Africa cheaply, sell in the Americas at 10x price
Also called the Triangular Trade:
Europe → Africa: firearms, alcohol, textiles
Africa → Americas: slaves (Middle Passage)
Americas → Europe: sugar, tobacco, rum
Free Trade (post-1689):
Opened to individual traders
Increased competition and expansion of the trade
Allowed by British law (1689)
The Middle Passage:
The transatlantic journey endured by slaves
Harsh conditions, poor sanitation, overcrowding
High mortality rate: ~1 in 6 slaves died in route
Conditions in the Americas:
Worked in plantations and mines from dawn to dusk
Lived in chains with minimal care
Lifelong suffering under European colonial masters
6.3.4 The Abolition of the Slave Trade
African Resistance: Africans resisted enslavement through revolts during the Middle Passage and on plantations. Some African elites and abolitionists abroad also opposed the trade, but resistance was often uncoordinated and brutally suppressed.
European Abolitionist Movement:
The trans-Atlantic slave trade began to decline as abolitionist sentiment grew in Europe.
Influenced by religious groups, humanitarians, and Enlightenment ideals (e.g., liberty, equality), many Europeans condemned the slave trade as immoral and inhumane.
However, governments were slow to respond to public pressure initially.
Economic Factors in Abolition:
Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America made slavery and plantations less profitable.
Demand shifted from slave labor to raw materials, cheap labor, and new markets for industrial goods.
Economic interests outweighed humanitarian concerns in bringing change.
Key Dates of Legal Abolition:
Denmark (1803), Britain (1807), U.S. (1808), Sweden (1813), Netherlands (1814), France (1818).
Britain played a leading role, using its navy to enforce anti-slavery laws.
Impact on Africa:
Decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade by mid-19th century.
However, slavery continued:
Slaves were still exported to Arabia, North Africa, and the Far East.
Domestic slavery persisted.
Slavery was abolished at different times across Africa (e.g., Gold Coast 1874, Ashante 1908, Ethiopia only after Italian invasion in 1935).
6.3.5 The Effects of Slave Trade on Africa
Scope of Slave Trade:
Approx. 18 million Africans enslaved between 1500 and 1900.
Trans-Atlantic trade alone involved about 12 million from all Atlantic coasts and southeastern Mozambique.
Social and Demographic Impacts:
Extermination of some groups, displacement from ancestral lands.
Family dislocation and widespread loss of population.
Destruction of communities and economies, stunted development of productive forces.
Political Effects:
Rise and fall of political states due to involvement in or resistance to slave trade.
Yoruba and Wolof suffered instability.
States like Benin had minimal impact due to their limited participation.
Economic Effects:
Drained labor force, disrupting agriculture and food production.
Forced labor diverted African resources to meet foreign traders' demands.
Prevented economic self-sufficiency and advancement.
Rise of Slave-Based States:
States like Dahomey, Ashante, and Oyo grew powerful through slave trade.
Militarization and Warfare:
Long periods of defensive wars against European raiders.
Boosted military organization and tribal alliances.
6.4 The Legitimate Trade
Transition to Legal Trade:
As Europe abolished slavery, attention shifted to legal commodities.
West Africa became a major source for “legitimate” exports.
Major Exports:
Gum Arabic (from Senegal): used in textile industries for fixing dyes.
Groundnuts (from Guinea).
Palm oil (coastal forest zones): main industrial lubricant before petroleum.
Production and Labor:
Production organized by African rulers and merchants.
Still relied heavily on internal slave labor for plantations and transport.
Limited Benefits:
Only a few wealthy rulers and merchants benefited.
Majority of the population saw no improvement in their living standards.
European Influence and Competition:
Imports from Europe (cloth, alcohol, firearms) did not aid African development.
Increased European trading competition led to interference in internal African trade.
Europeans aimed to bypass African middlemen and outcompete rivals.
Prelude to Colonialism:
Heightened European competition contributed to the "Scramble for Africa" in the 1870s–1880s.
6.5. The White Settlement in South Africa
Origins of White Settlement:
The discovery of a sea route around Africa led to white settlement at the Cape.
In 1652, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established a permanent base at the Cape of Good Hope.
Purpose: to trade meat with the Khoisan, grow fresh produce, supply European ships, and provide a hospital for sailors.
A military fort was built to protect the settlement from rival European powers and Khoisan attacks.
Expansion of Dutch Settlement:
In 1657, VOC released some of its soldiers to become permanent farmers — Boers (Afrikaners).
Slaves were imported from West Africa to work on Boer farms.
Conflict arose with the Khoisan over grazing lands and cattle, leading to the first Khoi-Dutch war in 1659.
Due to disunity among Khoisan clans, the Dutch won and took over Khoisan lands.
Second Khoisan-Dutch War (1673–77):
Featured more intense cattle raids and involved stronger Khoisan clans.
Ended with Dutch victory, increased livestock booty, and weakened Khoisan.
Boer settlement expanded significantly.
By 1700, 1,000 whites had permanently settled; wheat, fruit, and wine production grew.
Slaves were imported from Madagascar, Mozambique, and Indonesia.
By the late 18th century: 25,000 slaves vs. 21,000 whites in the Cape Colony.
Interior Expansion and Decline of Khoisan:
18th-century emergence of trek Boers pushed white settlement deeper inland.
Khoisan population declined due to displacement and smallpox epidemics brought by Europeans.
Wars with the Xhosa:
From 1700–1760, Boers expanded eastward into Zulu lands.
Series of wars with the Xhosa began in 1779.
British Takeover and the Great Trek:
Britain took over the Cape Colony in 1795.
Boers, dissatisfied with British rule, migrated north in 1830s–1840s (Great Trek).
Resulted in the formation of Boer republics: Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State.
Further Settlements and British Control:
Zulu conflict with both British and Boers followed.
Discovery of minerals in the 1860s attracted more settlers.
By the late 19th century, Britain had full control of all four colonies.
Impact on Indigenous Populations:
Settlers took the best agricultural lands.
Indigenous Bantu and Khoisan peoples were displaced to marginal lands and later became a source of cheap labor.
6.6. European Explorers and Missionaries: 1770–1870
Shift from Slave Trade to Legitimate Trade:
Europe sought African raw materials, labor, and markets.
The African Association was founded in 1788 by wealthy Englishmen to explore Africa (e.g., reach Timbuktu and map the Niger River).
Exploration Efforts (1788–1877):
Many expeditions ventured into Africa; few succeeded.
Notable explorers:
Richard Burton, John Hanning Speke, and James Grant traced the White Nile to Lake Victoria in the 1850s–60s.
Dr. David Livingstone explored the Zambezi, Shire River, and Lake Malawi.
Henry Morton Stanley followed the Congo River in 1876, proving its navigability.
Leopold II of Belgium sent Stanley back to the Congo in 1879, paving way for colonialism.
Early Colonies and Trading Interests:
French established a narrow colony along the Senegal River.
British declared the Fante states a Crown Colony after defeating the Asante in 1874.
Commercial interests and control of Africa’s natural wealth were key motives for exploration.
Challenges to Exploration:
European deaths from malaria limited exploration until quinine’s introduction in the 1850s.
Post-quinine, exploration of major rivers (Nile, Zambezi, Congo) increased.
Rivers were seen as potential trade routes into the African interior.
Missionary Activity:
Numerous European missionaries came during the 19th century.
Leading groups: Anglican CMS, Wesleyan Methodist, LMS, and Moravian Missions.
Protestant and Catholic missionaries came from Britain, France, Germany, Holland, USA.
Mission work began in West Africa (e.g., Sierra Leone, Liberia) and Southern Africa.
Early Successes and Limitations:
LMS and Moravians found success among freed slaves, Khoisan, and mixed-race peoples.
Beyond the Cape Colony, missionaries were welcomed for their knowledge and access to firearms.
Missions beyond coastal areas developed slowly.
By the 1880s, less than 1% of non