Vietnam War Complete Study Guide

Vietnam War Study Guide

Background

  • French Colonization: Prior to World War I, Vietnam was colonized by France as part of French Indochina.
  • World War II: Japan occupied Vietnam during World War II.
  • Viet Minh Formation: Ho Chi Minh formed the Viet Minh, a communist-led movement, to combat Japanese rule.
  • First Indochina War: This war was fought between the Vietnamese people and France.
  • Geneva Accords: The war concluded with the Geneva Accords, a peace treaty that mandated France's withdrawal and granted freedom to Laos and Cambodia.
  • Containment Policy: The U.S. adopted a containment policy to prevent the spread of communism.
  • Ho Chi Minh's Leadership: Ho Chi Minh led the Viet Minh and was a communist.
  • Second Indochina War (Vietnam War): This conflict pitted North Vietnam and the Viet Cong (South Vietnamese communists) against South Vietnam and the United States.
  • North Vietnam: Pro-communist.
  • South Vietnam: Pro-democracy.

U.S. Involvement

  • Presidents: Understanding the roles of Presidents Eisenhower through Ford is crucial.
Foreign Policy
  • Eisenhower: Introduced the Domino Theory, fearing the spread of communism.
  • Kennedy: Increased the number of U.S. military advisors and supported the South Vietnamese government.
  • Johnson: An anti-communist, Johnson escalated U.S. involvement following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, leading to full military engagement.
  • Nixon: Introduced Vietnamization and expanded the war into Cambodia.
  • Ford: Oversaw the final withdrawal of U.S. troops and the fall of Saigon in 1975.
Domino Theory
  • Definition: The belief that if Vietnam fell to communism, neighboring countries in Asia would follow suit.
  • Relation to Containment: It was a component of the containment policy.
  • Eisenhower's Response: Eisenhower initiated USAID to resist communists, providing financial aid to the South.
  • SEATO: The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization was established to contain communism in Southeast Asia.
Kennedy’s Involvement
  • Military Advisors: Sent 15,000 troops, termed military advisors, to support the anti-communist South Vietnamese leader, Ngo Dinh Diem.
  • Objective: To ensure Diem remained in power due to his anti-communist stance.
Ngo Dinh Diem
  • President of South Vietnam: An anti-communist leader.
  • Unpopularity: Diem was autocratic and controlling.
  • Religious Bias: He was a devout Catholic in a predominantly Buddhist country.
  • Violation of Geneva Accords: Diem refused to participate in the 1956 free elections because he anticipated losing.
  • Formation of Viet Cong: Diem's policies led to the formation of the Viet Cong.
  • Assassination: The U.S. realized it had supported a flawed leader following his assassination.
Ho Chi Minh
  • Leader of North Vietnam: Considered the "father of Vietnam."
  • Founder of Viet Minh: Advocated for the unification of Vietnam under a communist government.

Key Players

  • Understanding key players, countries, and their roles is essential.
North Vietnam
  • Leader: Ho Chi Minh (Communist).
  • Supported By:
    • Viet Cong (in South Vietnam)
    • China
    • Soviet Union
    • North Korea
  • Neutral Support:
    • Laos and Cambodia (used strategically, e.g., Ho Chi Minh Trail).
South Vietnam
  • Leaders: Ngo Dinh Diem; Pro West (anti-communist)
  • Supported By:
    • U.S.
    • South Korea
    • Thailand, Australia, New Zealand.
  • Support without Troops:
    • Philippines
    • Taiwan
    • Spain

Johnson's Actions

  • Voting and Civil Rights: Johnson's domestic achievements included advancements in voting and civil rights.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident
  • Situation: In August 1964, U.S. military officials believed that North Vietnamese forces attacked an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin.
  • Result: The U.S. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing the president to take necessary measures against attacks on the U.S. and to prevent further aggression.
  • Consequences:
    • Allowed the President to commit troops without a formal declaration of war.
    • Allowed the U.S. to commence bombing enemy targets in North and South Vietnam.
Vietnam War
  • U.S. Involvement: Congress never declared war; the conflict became known as "America's war" under Johnson, officially "americanizing" the war.
  • Operation Rolling Thunder: A massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam was initiated.
  • Troop Levels: By 1968, over half a million Americans were fighting in Vietnam.
  • The Draft: The U.S. relied on the draft to raise troop numbers.
War Powers Act of 1973
  • Why: A result of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and its aftermath.
  • What:
    • The President must report to Congress within 48 hours of committing troops.
    • Congress must authorize the commitment or declare war within 60 days.
    • Troops must be recalled if authorization is not granted.
    • A 30-day extension is possible.
    • Purpose: Intended to prevent future "wars without declaration."

US Strategy

  • Attrition: A strategy focused on weakening the enemy through continuous attacks until they concede, relying on massive firepower, technological superiority, and airpower.
  • Ho Chi Ming Quote: “You will kill 10 of our men, and we will kill 1 of yours, and in the end it will be you who tire of it.”
  • Vietnamese Motivation: The Vietnamese were highly motivated, fighting for a cause.

Vietminh/Vietcong Strategy

  • Vietminh: North Vietnam (communist).
  • Viet Cong: Communist supporters in South Vietnam.
  • Strategy:
    • Guerilla Warfare (hit and run).
    • Knowledge of terrain (jungle).
    • Elaborate tunnel systems (Ho Chi Minh and Cu Chi).
    • Supply Support: Supplied by China and the Soviet Union.
    • Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Ho Chi Minh Trail
  • Usage: Used by North Vietnamese/Viet Cong forces to transport supplies (troops, weapons) into South Vietnam on foot.
  • Route: Stretched from North Vietnam, through Laos and Cambodia, to South Vietnam.
Cu Chi Tunnels
  • Description: Underground tunnels used by the Viet Cong.
  • Function: Served as living quarters, storage, command centers, and ambush locations.

Credibility Gap

  • A significant underlying theme reflecting a growing mistrust between the American public and the government.

Operation Rolling Thunder

  • Who: Johnson.
  • When: Early 1965.
  • What: Extensive bombing campaign; Dropped 800 tons of bombs on North Vietnam per day for 3 years.
  • Objectives:
    • Boost morale.
    • Divide Vietminh and Vietcong.
    • Destroy major defense, communication, and transportation hubs.
    • Halt the flow of men and material into South Vietnam.

Chemical Warfare

Napalm
  • Definition: A jellied gasoline used in bombs.
  • Why Used: To burn down sections of the forest to eliminate guerilla fighters.
  • Effect: Dangerous to humans.
Agent Orange (Operation Ranch Hand)
  • Definition: A toxic chemical herbicide.
  • Why Used: To destroy vegetation, depriving farmers and communist fighters of food and water, hoping they would relocate.
  • Effect: Caused birth defects, cancer, and fatalities.

Tet Offensive

  • Who: Vietcong.
  • When: January 1968.
  • What: Surprise attacks on cities by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces across South Vietnam, including an attack on the American embassy in Saigon. Considered Vietnamese New Year.
  • Lesson: Proved that no part of South Vietnam was safe, shattering U.S. beliefs that the war was nearing an end.

Impact of Tet Offensive

  • Credibility Gap: Exacerbated the credibility gap as the war wasn't over.
  • Public Disillusionment: American public began questioning the government due to the discrepancy between what was reported and what was happening.
  • Significance: The Tet Offensive marked a turning point in American attitudes towards the war and fueled the anti-war movement.
  • Johnson's Decision: Johnson announced he would not seek re-election.
  • Domestic Impact: The war diverted money away from domestic problems and needs.
  • Media Influence: Napalm and Agent Orange use, along with media coverage, contributed to the "living room" war idea.

Living Room War & Role of Media

  • Media Influence: The media turned public opinion against the war.
  • Television Coverage: Television made the Vietnam War a "living room" war.
  • Walter Cronkite: His reporting influenced public perception as people trusted him.

War Protests

  • Factions: Doves (anti-war, favored negotiation) and Hawks (pro-war, favored aggression).
  • Participants: Primarily young people (18+).
  • Types: Marches, teach-ins, boycotts.

Working Class War & Draft

  • Selective Service System (The Draft): To meet troop demands, mainly drafting men ages 18-26.
  • Deferments: College students had deferments, while working-class and minority men had fewer options.
  • Inequity: Those with education got better jobs.
  • Resistance: Those who did not wish to go burned draft cards or fled to Canada.
  • Disproportionate Impact: African Americans and Latinos were disproportionately represented in combat roles.

1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago

  • Protests: Anti-war and anti-establishment protests/riots.
  • Yippies: Youth International Party, led by Abbie Hoffman, threatened disruptive actions.
  • Problems: Thousands of anti-war protestors gathered, leading to televised violence.
  • Significance:
    • Division within the Democratic Party.
    • Helped Richard Nixon win the presidential election by appealing to the "silent majority."
    • Formation of a 3rd party (American Independent Party) led by George Wallace.

1968: Watershed Year

  • Key Events:
    • Tet Offensive.
    • Johnson's decision not to run for reelection.
    • Assassination of MLK Jr.
    • Assassination of Robert Kennedy.
    • Violence at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago.
    • Rise of the American Independent Party.
    • Student seizure of Columbia University.

Nixon's Vietnamization

  • Policy: Gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops and shifting the burden of combat to the South Vietnamese Army.
  • Impact: Temporarily reduced war protests.
  • Setbacks: News of secret bombings of Cambodia and Laos, the My Lai Massacre, and the Pentagon Papers refueled anti-war sentiment, leading to Kent State.
My Lai Massacre
  • Details: Massacred over 500 unarmed Vietnamese civilians, including children and women.
  • Cover-up: The military leadership attempted to cover up the incident.
Cambodia Bombings
  • Nixon's Actions: Nixon ordered secret bombings of Cambodia to destroy Viet Cong sanctuaries along the Ho Chi Minh Trail but denied doing so, contributing to the credibility gap.
Kent State Shooting
  • Details: National Guard shot at a group of unarmed protesters, killing 4 students.
Pentagon Papers
  • Content: Defense studies of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam.
  • Daniel Ellsberg: A military analyst for the Pentagon, disillusioned with government policy, released a top-secret study of the U.S. role in Indochina.
  • Revelation: Exposed government policies, such as the buildup of troops while publicly announcing withdrawal and bombing neutral neighboring nations.

Fall of Saigon

  • Paris Accords 1973: "A PEACE without Victory" – Ceasefire, allowed remaining U.S. troops to withdraw, and promised South Vietnam aid if attacked.
  • US troop withdrawal: US agreed to withdraw all troops and Nixon was gone and Ford was now president
  • Ford's Request: President Ford requested aid, but it was denied.
  • Saigon Falls (April 1975): The capital of North Vietnam fell.
  • Unification: North and South Vietnam became one country under Communist rule.
  • South Vietnam: South Vietnam surrendered and the government collapsed.

War by Numbers

  • Casualties: Approximately 60,000 dead.
  • Peak Fatalities: Year of highest American deaths in Vietnam War occurred.
  • US Soldiers Killed: Over 58,000 U.S. soldiers killed (average age 24).
  • Financial Cost: Over 160+160+ billion spent on the war (equivalent to trillions today).

Legacy of Vietnam

  • Policy Changes:
    • Draft age lowered to 18 from 21.
    • Reconsideration of the policy of containment.
    • War Powers Act.
    • Vietnam Syndrome.
  • American Cynicism: Loss of faith/trust in government.
  • Environmental and Health Issues: Agent Orange.
  • Veterans' Challenges: Reintegration challenges (PTSD, etc.).