Protobowl Notes
Elements
Neon
- (neon) - is found in fluorescent lamps
- (neon) - has the atomic number [10]
- (neon) - is the second-lightest of the noble gasses
- (neon) - is used alongside Helium to produce a gas laser
- (neon) - was first discovered by William Ramsay and Morris Travers
- (neon) - is extracted from the air via liquefaction
- (neon) - The elevated presence of this element in diamonds has led to suggestions that much of it has been deposited by solar wind
Carbon
- (Carbon) - This element is the focus of organic chemistry
- (Carbon) - Atomic Number 6
- (Carbon) - Atomic Symbol C
- (Carbon) - isotope of this element with atomic mass of 14 is used in archaeology for radiometric dating
- (Carbon) - This element's allotropes include diamond, graphite, and stable nanotubes
- (Carbon) - This element's four valence electrons allow it to form four bonds with other elements
Oxygen
- (oxygen) - gas transported by hemoglobin
- (oxygen) - Carbon monoxide prevents the binding of this gas
- (oxygen) - This species binds at an iron atom coordinated by a porphyrin
- (oxygen) - This species experiences homotopic cooperative effects
- (oxygen) - Up to four of these species may bind to a certain protein \hemoglobin\, with each binding subsequently increasing their affinity
- (oxygen) - The binding of this species causes a protein’s proximal histidine to shift and changes the protein from a "taut" configuration to a more "relaxed" configuration
- (oxygen) - The binding of this species was the first to be described by a Langmuir isotherm where its concentration is exponentiated by n
Phosphorus
- (phosphorus) - atomic symbol [P]
- (phosphorus) - is the backbone for nucleic acids
- (phosphorus) - a double bond between this element and carbon is found in a reagent that reacts with carbonyl groups to give alkenes in the Wittig reaction
Helium
- (helium) - the lightest noble gas
- (helium) - its nucleus is equivalent to an [alpha particle]
- (helium) - This element has a [25]% abundance in the universe making it the [second] most abundant element
- (helium) - It was first discovered as a yellow spectral line during a solar eclipse in 1868
- (helium) - was named by Joseph Norman Lockyer and co-discovered by Pierre Janssen
- (helium) - this element is consumed in red giant during the triple-alpha process
- (helium) - the CNO cycle is used to produce this element *the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle is a form of stellar nucleosynthesis*
- (helium) - its namesake “flash“ is caused by the presence of its degenerate form *this flash is an extreme core collapse of small stars like the Sun*
Iron
- (iron) - Its most common ore is hematite
- (iron) - the mieral pyrite consist of two sulfur atoms and an atom of this metal
- (iron) - it undergoes the Bessemer process to form an alloy with carbon
- (iron) - This element catalyzes the Haber-Bosch process to produce ammonia
- (iron) - A blue pigment used as an antidote for heavy metal poisoning *that pigment is prussian blue*
- (iron) - this element catalyzes the Bechamp reduction and Fischer-Tropsch process
- (iron) - Collman’s reagent consists of this element bonded to four carbonyl groups
Plutonium
- This is used in an alternative to enriched uranium fuel known as mixed oxide fuel
- it was used in the Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki
- It made up much of the core of The Gadget detonated in the Trinity test
- this became the first element discovered by Glenn Seaborg
- This element exhibits six solid-state phase transformations before reaching a liquid state, more than any other element
Element Groups
Halogens
- (halogens) - a group of elements that include iodine, chlorine, and fluorine
- (halogens) - each of its members contains seven valence electrons
- (halogens) - This group contains the only nonmetal that is liquid at standard temperature *bromine*
- (halogens) - the heaviest member is astatine
- (halogens) - one member in this group is used in bleaching *chlorine*
- (halogens) - Most members of this chemical group will form an ion with a minus 1 charge
- (halogens) - An acid formed by bonding one of these elements to hydrogen can dissolve glass, and is the only such acid of this group that is weak *that acid is hydrofluoric acid*
- (halogens) - Along with carbon and hydrogen, members of this group comprise CFCs *CHLORO-FLUORO-carbons*
- (halogens) - One member of this group is the rarest non-transuranium element
- (halogens) - One of these elements was bonded to xenon to form the first noble gas compound
- (halogens) - One of these elements was the last naturally occurring element to be discovered *astatine?*
- (halogens) - a member of this group binds to carbon in Teflon *fluorine*
- (halogens) - Deficiency in one member of this chemical group can lead to goiter *iodine*
- (halogens) - An element in this group is combined with its potassium salt in Lugol's solution *iodine*
- (halogens) - In the Friedel-Crafts reaction, one member of this group bonded to an alkyl group can be used to attach the alkyl group to an aromatic ring
Biology
Angiosperms
- (angiosperms) - this group of plants is characterized by flowers and contrasted with gymnosperms
- (angiosperms) - Pollen is carried from the stamen to the pistil in these organisms
- (angiosperms) - These organisms are divided into monocots and eudicots by the number of cotyledons
- (angiosperms) - In these organisms, one sperm cell fuses with the egg, and two polar nuclei from the embryo sac fuse with another sperm cell, creating a triploid endosperm, in a process called [double fertilization]
- (angiosperms) - Nymphaeales is one basal member of these organisms, and recent genetic evidence suggests that Amborella is another
- (angiosperms) - Oleanane is the name given to chemicals produced by these organisms
Y Chromosome
- (Y chromosome) - this sex chromosome’s presence leads to male offspring
- (Y chromosome) - This structure encodes the SRY gene that initiates testes development in mammalian embryos
- (Y chromosome) - Duplication of this structure results in above-average height in a condition often contrasted with Klinefelter syndrome and was used in the 60s to appeal prison convictions
- (Y chromosome) - A form of retinitis pigmentosa is linked to this structure that has an unusually low entropy rate and does not require dosage compensation
- (Y chromosome) - This structure consists of two PARs and a NRY
- (Y chromosome) - this structure was discovered by Nettie Stevens while she was studying mealworm beetles
Viruses
- (virus) - these are non-living pathogens
- (virus) - A protein capsid surrounds these entities
- (virus) - AZT is a treatment for a widespread “retro-” one *that virus is HIV*
- (virus) - Some of these structures employ the protein reverse transcriptase to integrate their genetic material into their host’s chromosomes
- (virus) - The first discovered one of these causes tobacco mosaic disease
- (virus) - Members of the Epstein-Barr class of these agents are associated with Burkett’s lymphoma and cause infectious mononucleosis
- (virus) - Latency results when these entities enter a lysogenic cycle
- (virus) - The relative expression of C1 and cro determines whether these structures enter the lytic or lysogenic cycles
- (virus) - The T2 type of these were labeled with radioactive sulfur and phosphorus in the Hershey-Chase experiment
Krebs Cycle
- (Krebs) - this is the second stage of cellular respiration
- (Krebs) - Pyruvate from glycolysis starts this pathway that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion
- (Krebs) - Beginning when oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA react, it sends succinate, FADH2, and NADH to the electron transport chain
- (Krebs) - one step in it produces L-malate from fumarate
- (Krebs) - A molecule important in this process is formed when beta-oxidation breaks down fatty acids *that important molecule is acetyl CoA*
Genetic Drift
- this phenomenon involves chance variations in allele frequency
- it is one of the influences which can cause deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, & Its effects are greater in small populations
- the founder effect is a type of this and can result from a population bottleneck
- In the founder type of this phenomenon, a small number of individuals start a new population
- Motoo Kimura's neutral theory states that this phenomenon is the main cause of molecular evolution
Cell Organelles
Mitochondria
- (mitochondria) - this organelle is the site of the electron transport train
- (mitochondria) - site of anaerobic respiration
- (mitochondria) - this double-membraned organelle self-replicates during mitosis and meiosis and contains its own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes
- (mitochondria) - This organelle transfers substances across its inner membrane through a TIM/TOM complex
- (mitochondria) - oxalate is produced from pyruvic acid through the function of coenzyme A in this organelle *that is Kreb’s Cycle*
- (mitochondria) - [Lynn Margulis] proposed the [endosymbiotic theory] to explain why this organelle also possesses DNA *that theory says mitochondria developed from proteobacteria*
- (mitochondria) - DNA of this organelle is passed down [maternally]
- (mitochondria) - Tom40 protein channels exist on its membrane
- (mitochondria) - ubiquitin targets paternal genetic material in this organelle
- (mitochondria) - UCP1 is a protein that mediates heat generation in brown adipose tissue
- (mitochondria) - brown adipose tissue, aka brown fat, contains a lot more of this organelle than white fat
- (mitochondria) - Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy is caused by a problem in this organelle, which has also been suggested as a possible cause of aging
Golgi Apparatus
- (Golgi) - this organelle serves as the sorting and packaging center of the cell
- (Golgi) - this organelle is made of cisternae
- (Golgi) - most products of the rough ER are sent here for modification
- (Golgi) - B-cells rely on these organelles to secrete antibodies
- (Golgi) - proteins being sent to the lysosome are tagged with mannose-6-phosphate at this organelle’s trans face
- (Golgi) - COPI vesicles depart from this organelle's cis face
Anatomy
Thyroid Gland
- (thyroid) - The gland in the neck that helps regulate metabolism
- (thyroid) - This can be afflicted by goiters
- (thyroid) - Proper functioning of this gland requires iodine
- (thyroid) - It regulates calcium levels in the blood by releasing calcitonin
- (thyroid) - Overactivity of this gland can result in Graves’ disease
- (thyroid) - It contains the pyramidal lobe
- (thyroid) - one hormone excreted by it induces the metamorphosis of frogs *that hormone is thyroxine*
Kidneys
- (kidneys) - Dialysis is able to perform the tasks of this organ and is used on patients with failed or missing ones
- (kidneys) - This organ has Bowman’s capsule surrounding the glomerulus
- (kidneys) - Diabetic neuropathy is a disease of this organ that affects the blood vessels of the glomerulus
- (kidneys) - Another disease of this organ is Minimal Change disease, which increases its permeability to serum albumin, causing edema
- (kidneys) - Syndromes that affect this organ include WAGR syndrome and Denys-Drash syndrome, both of which increase the chance of developing Wilm's tumor
Cerebrum
- (cerebrum) - This largest area of the brain controls voluntary thoughts and actions
- (cerebrum) - this structure is divided into temporal, parietal, occipital, and frontal lobes
- (cerebrum) - The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of this structure
- (cerebrum) - this structure develops from the telencephalon
- (cerebrum) - This structure is divided into Brodmann areas
Liver
- (liver) - this reddish-brown abdominal organ produces bile and stores it in the gallbladder
- (liver) - this largest gland which filters alcohol from blood
- (liver) - Cirrhosis is the degeneration of this organ
- (liver) - This is the largest human internal organ
- (liver) - this organ shares the billiary tree with the nearby gall bladder
- (liver) - This organ is divided into four lobes
- (liver) - The portal vein enters this structure where it spreads into vascular channels called sinusoids
- (liver) - This human organ can regenerate
- (liver) - One pathway in the organ synthesizes pyruvic acid from lactic acid and is called the Cori cycle
- (liver) - holesterol is synthesized in this organ, as well albumin, clotting factors, and angiotensinogen
- (liver) - Hepatocytes store glycogen in this organ
- (liver) - This organ converts glycogen into glucose
- (liver) - Alpha fetoprotein and alpha-one globulin are often used to diagnose cancer in this organ
- (liver) - Kupffer cells are found in this organ
- (liver) - other cells in this organ have an unusual level of polyploidy *those other cells are Hepatocytes*
- (liver) - Its not the Kidney, but this organ possesses large amounts of smooth endoplasmic reticulum because of its role in removing toxins from the body
Cholesterol
- (cholesterol) - this lipid is a precursor to steroid hormones
- (cholesterol) - this molecule can be carried by both high-density and low-density lipoproteins
- (cholesterol) - Crystals of this molecule form during atherosclerosis
- (cholesterol) - derivatives of this molecule include bile acids and Vitamin D
- (cholesterol) - Enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum's membrane convert squalene to this molecule
- (cholesterol) - Rab9 is hyperactive in NPC1-deficient cells to ensure transport of this molecule
Axons
- (axons) - these parts of a neuron conduct electrical impulses from a namesake hillock to the synapse
- (axons) - ion channels along these structures are clustered at nodes of Ranvier
- (axons) - These structures are often surrounded by a myelin sheath
- (axons) - the Hodgkin-Huxley model was derived from experiments on a "giant" one of these structures taken from a squid
- (axons) - Santiago Ramon y Cajal showed that these structures are independent of one another
Diseases
Human Immunodefficiency Virus *not a disease but causes AIDS*
- (HIV) - infection with this lentivirus can cause opportunistic infection and immune system collapse
- (HIV) - This virus uses reverse transcriptase to attack leukocytes known either as “helper” or “cytotoxic” T cells
- (HIV) - Kaposi’s sarcoma can be found in patients infected with it
- (HIV) - Infection by this virus is treated with AZT
- (HIV) - This virus uses the Env cap made up of gp41 and gp120 proteins to latch onto CD4 receptors
- (HIV) - the TAR hairpin of its genome binds to the tat protein, which interacts with receptors for CXCR4, also known as fusin, which itself is a receptor for SDF-1
- (HIV) - This infectious agent’s genome codes for pol and gag
Taxonomy
Protists
- (protists) - these organisms constitute a kingdom including algae and protozoans
- (protists) - include diatoms, dinoflagellates, and slime molds
- (protists) - Volvox is a biflagellate example of these organisms
- (protists) - Some of these organisms contain specialized organelles called glycosomes, whereas others have a flexible outer layer called a pellicle and have a macronucleus and micronucleus
- (protists) - Some of these organisms contain specialized organelles called glycosomes
- (protists) - some members of this group of organisms produce hydrogen anaerobically using an organelle derived from symbiotic bacteria, the hydrogenosome
Cnidaria
- members of this phylum grow from a polyp to a medusa
- Organisms in this phylum are characterized by stinging cells known as nematocytes
- Its class Anthozoa contains corals
- Chironex fleckeri, in the class Cubozoa, is a member of this phylum
- One class of this phylum is distinguished by the presence of a pharynx that opens into the gastrovascular cavity and is known as the actinopharynx
Physics
Turbulent Flow
- (turbulence) - contrasted with [laminar flow]
- (turbulence) - during this phenomenon velocity and pressure vary chaotically across space
- (turbulence) - This phenomenon occurs at very high [Reynold’s numbers]
- (turbulence) - inertial forces are much greater than viscous forces during this phenomenon
- (turbulence) - Andrey [Kolmogorov] theorized that this process is isotropic at microscopic length scales
- (turbulence) - The L-VEL and yPlus methods are used to computationally model this phenomenon
Viscosity
- (viscosity) - This quantity decreases for thixotropic materials when shear stress is applied
- (viscosity) - The frictional force a spherical object experiences is proportional to this quantity, the radius, and the velocity by [Stokes' law]
- (viscosity) - The kinematic type of this quantity is equal to the dynamic type divided by the density
- (viscosity) - This quantity is squared in the denominator of the Grashof number
- (viscosity) - This quantity can be measured using a [Zahn cup]
Diffusion
- (diffusion) - Dynkin's formula describes the Itō type of this phenomenon at a stopping time
- (diffusion) - Ehrenfest's model of it explains the statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics
- (diffusion) - at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of this for gases is proportional to one over the square root of molar mass according to [Graham’s Law]
- (diffusion) - This name is given to the coefficient multiplied by the partial derivative of concentration with respect to the position in [Fick’s] First Law
- (diffusion) - another type of this process occurs in hypotonic and hypertonic cells
- (diffusion) - transport proteins can facilitate this process across a cell membrane
Simple Harmonic Occilators
- (SHO) - Hooke’s law is an equation for this type of system because the restoring elastic force F is directly proportional to displacement
- (SHO) - When these objects are “damped,” a frictional force opposes the velocity of those objects
- (SHO) - An equation for resonant frequency of these objects is one half pi times angular frequency and is represented by a sinusoidal graph
- (SHO) - Bertrand’s theorem for a radial one of these objects states that it is one of two force potentials with bound orbits for which a closed orbit also exists
Pendulums
- (pendulums) - These objects’ periods are independent of mass
- (pendulums) - One of them placed at the dome of the Pantheon was used to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth by Foucault
- (pendulums) - The differential equation “d squared theta d t squared equals negative g over L sine theta” describes these objects
- (pendulums) - These objects were once used to calculate the momentum of a speeding bullet
- (pendulums) - A team led by Nevil Maskelyne used one of these objects to calculate the density of the Earth
Springs
- (springs) - The nameake constant for these objects shows up in a law that relates the displacement of an object to the restoring force *Hooke’s Law*
- (springs) - Hooke’s law governs these entities
- (springs) - The angular frequency of a weight connected to one of these objects is given by taking the square root of that constant over the mass
- (springs) - Like capacitors, when these objects are placed in parallel, their effective namesake constant becomes equal to the addition of the two individual values of those constants.
Ferromagnetism
- (ferromagnetism) - materials that exhibit this property often retain their magnetization in the absence of an external magnetic field, which is known as [hysteresis]
- (ferromagnetism) - the [Ising model] was originally created to model this phenomenon
- (ferromagnetism) - This property occurs below the Curie point
- (ferromagnetism) - One process in materials with this property occurs in many small discontinuous steps and results in Barkhausen noise
- (ferromagnetism) - One model of this phenomenon was solved in two dimensions by Lars Onsager *he solved the Ising model*
- (ferromagnetism) - one model of this phenomenon was generalized by Potts *he generalized the Ising model*
- (ferromagnetism) - The existence of this property can be predicted using the Stoner criterion
- (ferromagnetism) - As a result of the double-exchange mechanism, Heusler alloys do not exhibit this property
Diamagnetism
- (diamagnetism) - this property of materials causes the material to induce a magnetic field opposite to an exterior magnetic field
- (diamagnetism) - All noble gases have this property because their fully filled p orbitals can match together their opposing spins, canceling them out
- (diamagnetism) - Graphite strongly possesses the conventional form of this property, allowing it to be easily levitated
- (diamagnetism) - Molecules with this property form a single peak when shot through a Stern-Gerlach apparatus
- (diamagnetism) - if a material has this property its net magnetic moment is [zero]
- (diamagnetism) - The Landau model explains this property in metals as Lorentz interactions in a free electron gas
- (diamagnetism) - Diatomic boron anomalously lacks this property because the increased penetration of s orbitals leads to s-p mixing
Snell’s Law
- (Snells) - this law that be used to explain the bending of light when it enters and exits glass and water from the air
- (Snells) - This law equates the angles of incidence for a wave entering a new medium to the indices of refraction for those mediums
- (Snells) - When one part of this law exceeds the critical angle, the result is called total internal reflection
- (Snells) - This law can be used to express an equation for finding the polarizing or Brewster's angle
- (Snells) - This law was originally discovered by Descartes under the name the Law of Sines
Speed of Light
Speed of Sound
- (speed of sound) - the shock waves formed when this quantity is exceeded give rise to a sonicboom
- (speed of sound) - Often determined in physics labs with aresonance tube or tuning fork
- (speed of sound) - it is commonly approximated for theatmosphere as 331.45 plus 0.61 times Celsius temperature
- (speed of sound) - It's often derived as the square root of the adiabatic constant times gas constant times Kelvin temperature over molecular weight
- (speed of sound) - The Prandtl-Glauert transformation breaks down at this value as it predicts an object at it would experience infinite pressure
- (speed of sound) - Using a Lucite or Kundt tube, this quantity can be determined experimentally by examining thesequence of Lissajous curves as the measuring apparatus is moved
Nuclear Fusion
- (fusion) - Astrophysically, this occurs in the proton-proton chain, which culminates in the formation of helium and is the primary source of energy in the sun
- (fusion) - Muon catalysis lowers the activation energy for this process over a million-fold
- (fusion) - Another device in which it occurs is covered in a lithium blanket, which breeds tritium from fast neutrons *that device is a tokamak, in which a plasma is magnetically confined*
- (fusion) - This process is employed in the secondary in the Teller-Ulam device
- (fusion) - In one device in which this process occurs, lasers are fired at both apertures of a hohlraum
Temperature
- (temperature) - The energy needed to increase this quantity in a substance is given by a substance's heat capacity
- (temperature) - along with pressure, it forms the axes of a phase diagram
- (temperature) - This quantity is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of an ideal gas
Entropy
- (entropy) - the second law of thermodynamics holds that over time for isolated systems there is an increase in this measure of disorder, symbolized S
- (entropy) - This quantity goes to a minimum as temperature approaches absolute zero
- (entropy) - this quantity can be defined as Boltzmann's constant times the logarithm of the number of microstates of a system
- (entropy) - Taking the negative derivative with respect to temperature of the Helmholtz free energy yields this quantity
- (entropy) - For a black hole, this quantity is given by the product of the area of that black hole with Boltzmann's constant, divided by four times the Planck length squared
Schrodinger
- (Schrodinger) - This physicist’s namesake equation describes how the wave function evolves over time
- (Schrodinger) - is the author of What is Life?
- (Schrodinger) - illustrated the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation in an experiment (namesake cat)
- (Schrodinger) - The relativistic Klein-Gordon equation is a form of his namesake equation, which can be simplified using the Born–Oppenheimer approximation
Isaac Newton
- (Newton) - One law named for him describes "universal gravitation"
- (Newton) - a law named for him states that the net force on an object is its mass times its acceleration
- (Newton) - a namesake law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
- (Newton) - he discussed his experiments with the dispersion of light including breaking white light into its constituent colors using a prism
- (Newton) - This scientist has a work named Opticks discussing light
- (Newton) - his principles are outlined in his Principia Mathematica
- (Newton) - Simultaneously with Gottfried Leibniz he invented calculus
- (Newton) - He generalized the binomial theorem to all real exponents
- (Newton) - This man introduced dot notation to indicate derivatives, which are used in a method named for him to recursively find the roots of a function
Enrico Fermi
- (Fermi) - this Italian American created Chicago Pile-1 in 1942, the first man-made nuclear chain reaction
- (Fermi) - The particles named for this man have non-integer spins and are contrasted with particles named for Satyendra Nath Bose
- (Fermi) - This person and Paul Dirac worked out the statistical distribution of particles that obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle, his namesake particles
- (Fermi) - The type of gas named for this person exerts pressure even at absolute zero
- (Fermi) - The acceleration named for this person can take place when particles repeatedly cross the shock front caused by a supernova
Types of Electromagnetic Radiation
Ultraviolet Radiation
- (ultraviolet) - includes light with a shorter wavelength than visible light but longer than that of x-rays
- (ultraviolet) - encompasses wavelengths between 10 and 400 nanometers
- (ultraviolet) - One kind of spectroscopy utilizes light in the visible range and this range
- (ultraviolet) - the Rayleigh-Jeans law breaks down in this radiation's spectrum, causing its namesake “catastrophe”
- (ultraviolet) - Most Cherenkov radiation occurs in this spectrum
X-ray Radiation
- This type of radiation has energy output just less than that of gamma rays
- Rosalind Franklin scattered this type of radiation to take images of DNA
- These phenomena are used to observe diffraction patterns in the Advanced Photon Source
Electricity
Electrical Current
- (current) - the amount of charge flowing through a point over time
- (current) - this quantity is measured in amperes
- (current) - comes in alternating and direct types
- (current) - Ohm's Law states that voltage is equal to this quantity times resistance
- (current) - For a diode, this is proportional to the exponential voltage
- (current) - A diode allows it to flow in only one direction
- (current) - The integral of the magnetic field is proportional to this quantity by Ampere's Law
- (current) - One of Maxwell's equations describes how this physical quantity produces a magnetic field
- (current) - The density of this quantity is equal to the electrical field times conductivity
Experiments
Michelson-Morley Experiment
- (Michelson-Morley) - this experiment named for two scientists was used to disprove the existence of ether
- (Michelson-Morley) - The fringe shift ended up being within the margin of error, meaning that the earth's movement relative to the substance in question did not appear to exist
- (Michelson-Morley) - This experiment used two mirrors and a beamsplitter
- (Michelson-Morley) - This experiment used one of its namesake's interferometer
- (Michelson-Morley) - Lorentz argued that the negative result of this experiment was caused by length contraction
- (Michelson-Morley) - An experiment with similar results to it was later conducted by Trouton and Noble
Milikan Oil Drop Experiment
Chemistry
Aufbau Principle
- (Aufbau principle - requires electrons to enter atomic orbitals in a pattern that minimizes total potential energy
- (Aufbau principle) - its name comes from the German for “building up“
- (Aufbau principle) - Madelung’s rule determines the order in this concept
- (Aufbau principle) - [copper and chromium] are elemental exceptions to this concept
- (Aufbau principle) - In 1990, the IUPAC changed the numbering of groups to better reflect this concept, which explains the increased shielding of nuclear charge across a period
- (Aufbau principle) - Due to violations of special relativity, this concept fails around atomic number 173
Calorimetry
- (calorimetry) - the technique used for measuring the heat produced in a reaction
- (calorimetry) - nested coffee cups can be used to conduct it at constant pressure
- (calorimetry) - the “bomb“ form of this technique uses constant volume
- (calorimetry) - Peaks signify the glass transition temperature by comparing reference and sample pans in the “differential scanning” form of this technique
- (calorimetry) - Types of devices to conduct this technique include the Tian-Calvet and the Sage form
- (calorimetry) - Protonation effects must be considered in a form of this technique which measures ligand binding affinity by applying a feedback circuit to a system undergoing titration
- (calorimetry) - The Joule effect is used to calibrate a device used for this process
- (calorimetry) - One type of this technique requires a “purge gas” like nitrogen or helium to remove moisture and eliminate artifacts
Distillation
- (distillation) - This procedure makes use of a column that can be packed with steel wool or Raschig rings as a way to increase area without resorting to the fractional variety of this procedure
- (distillation) - One type of this technique is used in oil refineries to separate more volatile compounds from crude oil - that is the “fractional” type
- (distillation) - A jacketed tube that can be filled with water to cool and collect the results of this procedure is called a condenser
- (distillation) - A diagram depicting this procedure has a steplike appearance with one step for each theoretical plate necessary to accomplish it *that is the McCabe–Thiele plot*
- (distillation) - Many variants of this technique do not work for deviants from Raoult’s Law, or azeotropes
- (distillation) - A Perkin triangle is used to conduct this procedure under a vacuum
- (distillation) - A Clevenger apparatus is used to extract essential oils from plants in a type of this procedure
- (distillation) - If the ratio of the K value for the “light key” and “heavy key” equals one, then one type of this procedure is impossible
Chromatography
- (chromatography) - this technique uses the differences in behaviors between mobile and stationary phases
VSEPR Theory
- (VSEPR) - stands for [Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion]
- (VSEPR) - this model is a simple method for predicting the arrangements of bonds around an atom in a covalent molecule
- (VSEPR) - its basic postulate is that the region of space occupied by a pair of electrons can be approximately represented by a sphere, with the preferred arrangements of pairs those in which the spheres are closely packed around the core of the atom
- (VSEPR) - This model was developed by [Gillespie and Nyholm] based on proposals by Sidgwick and Powell
- (VSEPR) - An important feature of this model is that qualitative predictions about deviations from ideal shapes can be made on the basis of differences in the sizes of the domains involved
Linus Pauling
- (Pauling) - this man was an insistent advocate of large doses of vitamin C for health
- (Pauling) - the only person to ever have received two unshared Nobel Prizes, one for Chemistry, one for Peace
- (Pauling) - introduced the concept of electronegativity
- (Pauling) - created an eponymous numerical scale for the electronegativity of elements
- (Pauling) - He was the first to describe the hybridization of atomic orbitals in a seminal paper in 1932
- (Pauling) - First person to describe resonance to a fully accepted extent
- (Pauling) - He designed his house to have two wings connected at an angle similar to the angle between carbon atoms in a benzene molecule
Polymers
- (polymers) - consist of chemically bonded monomers
- (polymers) - The mixing of these substances in a solution is governed by Flory–Huggins theory
- (polymers) - described by the worm-like chain model
- (polymers) - One theory of these entities models them as isotropic rods that require energy to bend
Electronegativity
- (electronegativity) - this atomic property is the ability to attract electrons during bonding
- (electronegativity) - Although Francium has the largest Atomic Radius of any element it has the lowest value for this property
- (electronegativity) - This property is related to Electron Affinity in that it has the same periodic trend
- (electronegativity) - Definitions of this property, discovered in 1932 by Linus Pauling, have been given by Mulliken, Sanderson, and Allen *see below*
- (electronegativity) - Mulliken defined it as the mean of first ionization energy and electron affinity
- (electronegativity) - Allen suggested that this value is related to the average energy of a certain particle
- (electronegativity) - The Allred-Rochow formulation of it does not account for the d-block elements
- (electronegativity) - One formulation of this value uses Slater's rules to find an effective nuclear charge, which is then divided by the covalent radius
Activation Energy
- (activation energy) - this quantity must be overcome for a reaction to occur
- (activation energy) - is represented by an arrow which often points in the opposite direction of the change in Gibbs free energy
- (activation energy) - it often is reduced by catalysts
- (activation energy) - This quantity equals the opposite of the ideal gas constant times the temperature times the natural log of the quantity rate constant over A Factor according to the Arrhenius Equation
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
- (Henderson Hasselbalch) - this equation gives the degree to which a compound will deprotonate *remove a proton**
- \
- \
- \
- \
* given its pKa and the ambient pH(Henderson Hasselbalch) - this is commonly applied to find the isoelectric point of a protein or of a buffer solution(Henderson Hasselbalch) - this equation neglects the disproportionation of water, being just the logarithm of the expression for the equilibrium constant(Henderson Hasselbalch) - The Hammett function is applicable in extreme conditions when this equation fails(Henderson Hasselbalch) - It is replaced under certain conditions by a function calculated by combining the chemical activity with the dissociation of another compound, originally anilines substituted with electron-withdrawing groupsOxidation Reaction(oxidation) - in this type of reaction a reactant loses electrons(oxidation) - this type of reaction is contrasted with reduction(oxidation) - can be caused by free radicals(oxidation) - In biochemistry, Vitamins C and E inhibit this kind of reaction(oxidation) - Two of this kind of reaction are used in the Ostwald process for producing nitric acid from ammonia(oxidation) - this type of reaction converts KA-oil into adipic acid(oxidation) - In organic chemistry, common reagents used in this kind of reaction include PCC and chromic acid**__Particles__
Bosons(boson) - exemplified by the mass-carrying “Higgs” type(boson) - contrasted with fermions(boson) - elementary particles with integer spin(boson) - In 2013 the Large Hadron Collider tentatively confirmed the existence of one of these particles that carries mass(boson) - The W and Z particles are subtypes of these particles that carry the weak force(boson) - An ideal gas of these particles cooled near absolute zero shows quantum effects on a large scaleAstronomy
Edwin Hubble(Hubble) - this is the astronomer who is the namesake of a famous Space Telescope Not James Webb(Hubble) - He's famous now for a namesake instrument that produced the Ultra Deep Field image and suffered spherical aberration due to a flawed mirror(Hubble) - his related law notes that a galaxy's velocity away from Earth is proportional to its distance from Earth(Hubble) - The inverse of this scientist's namesake constant gives the age of the universe - The Cepheid variables assisted this man's discovery that the Andromeda Galaxy is distinct from the Milky WayHubble Space TelescopeThe American astronomer who predicted the expansion of the universe is the namesake of this telescope in low Earth orbitSpherical aberration caused by its flawed mirror required the crew of STS-61 to install a corrective (*) optics system in 1993, greatly refining its imageswas replaced in 2018 by one named after James WebbPerkin Elmer was criticized for its poor work building a part of this object [flawed mirror]Gravitational Lensingthe phenomenon in which beams of light are bent by massive objectsThis phenomenon resulted in the creation of Einstein's ringsThis phenomenon results in the curvature of spacetimethis phenomenon creates an angle of 4GM over RC squared, and its observation of this phenomenon in the Bullet Cluster is strong evidence for dark matterExtrasolar planets are detected through one version of this phenomenon by the OGLE and MOA projectsThe weak version of this phenomenon is decomposed into convergence and shear formsvariation in this phenomenon due to orbital motion is called xallarapBig Bang(Big Bang) - CMBR is a remnant of this event cosmic microwave background radiation(Big Bang) - less than a second had gone by before hadrons were formed(Big Bang) - The Planck epoch occurred immediately after it(Big Bang) - it was given its current name by Fred Hoyle(Big Bang) - This idea was first discussed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître, who called it the “hypothesis of the primeval atom”Novae(nova) - recurring astronomical explosions that are dimmer than supernovae(nova) - named for the Latin word for “new”(nova) - Runaway fusion from red giant's hydrogen accreting on the surface of a white dwarf begins this(nova) - These recurring events can cause one object to exceed the Chandrasekhar mass and occur only in binary systems(nova) - These events that occur on degenerate carbon generally have peaks at -8.8 and -7.5 in absolute magnitude(nova) - These events occur on objects whose Roche lobes are large enough to pick up nearby material(nova) - These events are classified as NA, NB, NC, and RNSupernovae(supernova) - The Crab Nebula is the result of one of these objects observed by Chinese astronomer in 1054 CE(supernova) - The Type Ia form of these objects typically occurs when a white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit(supernova) - in their aftermath they can compress to form an extremely dense neutron star(supernova) - They are believed to occur from the rapid and violent collapse of a tightly bound iron core(supernova) - Different forms of these objects are noted by their lack of a silicon absorption line at 615 nanometersNebula(nebula) - comes from Latin for mist(nebula) - The Eagle one contains the Pillars of Creation, and other notable ones include the Cat's Eye and Crab ones(nebula) - this term was used to describe the Andromeda Galaxy at one time(nebula) - The term was originally used for any extended astronomical object(nebula) - An example of this structure is the first item in the Messierm catalog(nebula) - Italo Calvino wrote in his short story At Daybreak about living in one(nebula) - One of these in Cygnus is named for the fact that it resembles North America(nebula) - the Omega one is an example of an emission type, which contain ionized gas(nebula) - The Pleiades is an example of a reflection type, which do not produce much visible light(nebula) - The Wings of the Butterfly one and the Red Square one are examples of the bipolar type(nebula) - Types include emission, reflection, and planetary(nebula) - Kant and Laplace’s hypothesis for the mechanism of solar system formation is named for this kind of structure.(nebula) - Barnard 33 is an example of a dark oneSaturnIn 2005, the Huygens probe landed on this planet's largest moonthe only moon in the solar system with surface liquid and a nitrogenous atmosphere obrits this bodyMultiple moons of this planet feature ice volcanoes, including Tethys, Enceladus, and its largest moonThis planet’s satellites include Mimas, which takes less than one day to orbit itEarth’s Moon / Luna(Moon) - The gravity of this body is too weak to hold an atmosphere(Moon) - The Ranger 8 crashed into its Sea of Tranquility(Moon) - This body’s small magnetic field may have been generated by collisions, such as the one that created its Sea of Showers impact basin(Moon) - The low density of this body is not explained by the Condensation Theory of its formationBlack Holes(black holes) - these are objects in outer space from which supposedly nothing, not even light, can escape(black holes) - One of them, Sagittarius A Star, sits at the center of our galaxy and has four million times the mass of our sun(black holes) - According to quantum mechanics, these objects emit Hawking radiation(black holes) - The size of these objects is given by the Schwarzschild radiusEarth Science
Quartz(quartz) - has a Mohs hardness of 7 - a material with the chemical formula SiO2 silicon dioxide(quartz) - this mineral is the second most abundant in the earth’s crust after Feldspar - The site of a meteor impact is often made of a “shocked” variety of this mineral(quartz) - Along with [iridium] concentration, a variety of this mineral was used to explain the extinction of the dinosaurs in the Alvarez hypothesisEarthquakes(earthquakes) - Their intensity can be measured by the Richter scale(earthquakes) - the strongest one measured a 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale(earthquake) - The deadliest one of these events killed over 800,000 people in China in 1556(earthquakes) - The location of origin for one of them is called the hypocenter and the spot above it on the surface is called the epicenter(earthquakes) - these phenomena generate Rayleigh and Love waves in addition to p and s waves(earthquakes) - Liquefaction often results from these events, which occur at dip-slip and strike-slip boundaries(earthquakes) - These events are measured by the Mercalli intensity scale(earthquakes) - The process of dividing a region into areas of different risk and potential for these phenomena is called microzonation(earthquakes) - The Flinn–Engdahl regions are used to describe where these events occurTectonic Plates(tectonic plates) - The lithosphere consists of these moving sections of Earth’s crust(tectonic plates) - they grow at mid-ocean ridges in the process of seafloor spreading(tectonic plates) - If these structures meet at a convergent boundary, then subduction can occur(tectonic plates) - Ancient examples of these structures include one named for the god Izanagi and another named Farallon which gave rise to a modern one called Juan de FucaVolcanoes(volcanoes) - The Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire is home to hundreds of these(volcanoes) - but they sometimes form away from plate boundaries at mantle plumes, commonly called hot spots(volcanoes) - most commonly found at tectonic plate boundaries(volcanoes) - the mud versions are commonly found on the ocean floor(volcanoes) - Ice versions of these features sometimes form on Lake Superior in the winterOcean Currents(ocean currents) - These entities are classified into surface and deep types, the latter of which is driven by thermohaline circulation(ocean currents) - In a process known as Ekman transport, the Coriolis force results in these entities having a net direction of transport ninety degrees to the wind direction(ocean currents) - El Niño Southern Oscillation affects one these entities by lowering the thermocline and the upper boundary of the shadow zone, ultimately disrupting local upwelling(ocean currents) - The one of these that is named after Alexander von Humboldt flows from Antarctica past South America(ocean currents) - These entities are measured using units called sverdrupsWind(wind) - unequal heating of the surface of the Earth gives rise to sea and land varieties(wind) - Jet streams are a type of these(wind) - this phenomenon is weak or nonexistent in the doldrums(wind) - this phenomenon is described using the Beufort Scale(wind) - station models use flags on tails to plot their magnitude(wind) - Barbs on the sides of Stüve diagrams indicate one of their properties(wind) - Adiabatic cooling causes the Santa Ana or Diablo varieties of this phenomenonMagma(magma) - Once any type reaches the planet's surface, it is known as lava(magma) - The basaltic type is hottest, forms due to partial melting in the mantle, and flows fastest(magma) - rhyolitic and andesitic types contain more silicon dioxide and are more viscous(magma) - The three types of this material differ by their mineral and gas contentLava(lava) - The cooling of this substance forms extrusive igneous rocks such as pumice(lava) - The two main types of the basaltic form of this substance, which is classified by temperature and viscosity, are pahoehoe and a’a(lava) - When this substance is underwater, it takes on a spherical shape known as its pillow type(lava) - domes of this substance can form structures called coulees(lava) - One type of this substance is characterized by small units called “toes” and its rope-like appearance(lava) - Columnar jointing concerns the regular, geometric arrangement of this substance as it coolsAlfred Wegener(wegener) - this man is generally credited with the theory of continental drift(wegener) - In 1915, this German meteorologist and geophysicist published a monograph(wegener) - This man put forth the hypothesis that the continents were all once put together in a supercontinent he called Pangaea.(wegener) - This man proposed his best known theory in his work The Origin of Continents and OceansSocial Science