Henry VII's Reign

1.1 Henry’s Claim to the Throne

England had been unstable since 1399, with the throne regularly changing hands since 1399.
The Wars of the Roses between the Lancastrians and Yorkists began in 1455 and lasted until 1485/7. The wars began because of instability, Henry VI was a weak king and his nobles were powerful.
However, by 1485, most of the great nobles had been killed and those below them, the gentry, merchants and landowning farmers, wanted peace and stability. Sir Thomas Craig wrote that ‘there was not one left to piss against a wall.’
Under Edward IV and Richard III nobles had built up huge power bases in their local areas, some were able to become ‘overmighty’ subjects. The Earl of Warwick had a private army of 30,000 soldiers in 1485.
There was a history of monarchs being overthrown, with Henry VI, Edward IV and Richard III. This had contributed to an environment where people were more willing to challenge the established monarch.
Richard III may have murdered the princes in the tower, the Buckingham Rebellion had attempted to remove him in 1483 and he was deeply unpopular with nobles. He was not a well-liked King.
Due to his unpopularity, Lord Thomas Stanley, Sir William Stanley and the Earl of Northumberland all refused to support Richard III in the Battle of Bosworth.
Henry only had a weak claim to the throne, through his mother Margaret Beaufort. Others who had a claim through their fathers, or grandfathers, were considered to have a stronger claim. For example the de la Pole brothers.
Henry had been in exile in France for 14 years, he hardly knew England and his invasion was aided by the French, who were not popular in England.
However, Henry’s detached upbringing at Pembroke Castle in Wales and his years of exile in France meant that Henry had few personal enemies amongst the nobility. Henry was also an only child and as such, he did not have to deal with rivalries within his own family.
Henry had been unable to gain a lot of public support in his march through Wales before the Battle of Bosworth, as most people didn’t know who he was.
Henry nearly lost the Battle of Bosworth, he had a smaller force and his standard bearer was killed by Richard’s men. He was rescued by the support of Lord Stanley’s men.
However, Henry’s victory at Bosworth gave him the opportunity to prove himself as a soldier and as a leader, both qualities that were respected in a King. Furthermore, the death of Richard III meant that he was no longer around to challenge Henry.
Only 1 in 4 English nobles fought against Henry at Bosworth.

1.2 Northern Progress and the Lovell Conspiracy

In the spring of 1486, the newly crowned Henry VII went on a progress (royal tour) around his new kingdom. In an age before the circulation of images, this was an important way to let the people see the King and start to build loyalty.
Henry spent a large amount of time in the North, especially Yorkshire. The North was historically more lawless than the south. It was also largely loyal to Richard III who had spent more time there than any previous King.
After the Battle of Bosworth, prominent Yorkist supporters Francis Lord Lovell and Humphrey Stafford found sanctuary (protection in a Holy place) at Colchester Abbey. Both had been loyal supporters of Richard III and together they began to conspire against Henry.
Henry VII used spies to monitor Yorkist supporters and in April 1486, he learned that Lovell and Humphrey Stafford had escaped and were planning a rebellion.
Sir Edgcumbe and Sir Tyler were appointed to apprehend Lovell, who was forced to flee to Flanders under the protection of Margaret of Burgundy.
The Stafford brothers led a rebellion in Worcester while the King was on his Northern Progress, despite the fact that Henry had mass support in this area.
As soon as Henry advanced towards Worcester on 11 May 1486, the Stafford brothers fled to Culham Abbey.
Henry sent John Barrowman to forcibly remove the Staffords from Culham Abbey on the night of 14 May. They were tried before the Court of King’s Bench. Humphrey was executed, but his younger brother Thomas was pardoned.
At the same time, a rebellion in Wales was led by Yorkist supporters the Herberts and the Vaughans. This was crushed by Rhys ap Thomas, who had supported Henry at Bosworth.
None of these early rebellions can be considered particularly serious, as they were put down relatively easily. Furthermore, none of them prevented the Royal Progress, which succeeded in winning loyalty and obedience in the North.

1.3 Yorkist Challenges:

Earl of Warwick – locked up in the Tower of London (but lived in comfort).
John de la Pole (Earl of Lincoln) – swore loyalty to Henry and was later asked to join the council.
John de la Pole (Duke of Suffolk) – swore loyalty to Henry and left alone.
Earl of Surrey (fought with the Yorkists at Bosworth) – Kept in prison until 1489 when Henry was satisfied that he would be loyal.
Henry Percy (Earl of Northumberland) – Placed in prison, released at the end of 1485, given control of the North and the chance to prove his loyalty.
Married Elizabeth of York in January 1486, joined together the white rose of York with the red rose of Lancaster to form the Tudor rose.

1.4 Rewarding the Lancastrians:

Jasper Tudor (Henry’s uncle) – became Duke of Bedford and chief justice in Wales. 55 with no heirs, so Henry could grant this knowing that his position would not be threatened by Jasper’s heirs.
Sir Thomas Lovell – Made Chancellor of the Exchequer, Treasurer of the Household and Speaker of the House of Commons in 1485.
Giles Daubeney – Made Lord Daubeney and Lieutenant of Calais in 1486. Became Chamberlain of the household in 1495.
Bishop Richard Fox – Made Keeper of the Privy Seal (1487-1516), often at Council and a frequent ambassador.
John Morton (Bishop of Ely) – Made Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury.
Sir Reginald Bray – Made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Henry’s chief financial and property advisor.
ORDER OF THE GARTER – Special honour reserved for the King’s closest associates, gave them prestige and honour, rather than land or money. 37 appointed, including Giles Daubeney and Reginald Bray.

1.5 The Yorkshire Rebellion (1489):

Sparked by a parliamentary tax to fund Henry’s expedition to Brittany.
Yorkshire thought that they should have to fight off the Scots, not pay the tax (most northerly county to do so). Yorkshire had also suffered bad harvests that year.
Henry Percy (Earl of Northumberland), on the side of northern counties, but he was murdered by Sir John Egremont anyway!
Egremont led an army, which was defeated outside York by the Earl of Surrey and 8,000 troops.
Earl of Surrey appointed as Henry’s representative in the North.
Egremont fled to Flanders, but the rest of the rebels were not punished and Henry did not collect any more of the tax.
In the Spring of 1486, Henry went on a ‘Royal progress’ around his new Kingdom. He spent a lot of time in the North, especially Yorkshire.

1.6 The Cornish Rebellion (1497):

Spring 1497, Henry orders a loan of £120,000 should be repaid by general taxation. This tax is supposed to prepare for a military offensive against Scotland, who were supporting Warbeck.
Resentment comes to a head in St Keverne (Cornish Parish). An Gof and Thomas Flamank lead a rebellion.
15,000 rebels marched via Exeter, Salisbury and Winchester to Kent. This could be considered a genuine danger to the city. Queen Elizabeth, Lady Margaret and the royal children are moved into the Tower of London for their own protection.
Historian John Guy considers the Cornish Rebellion to be ‘the most important revolt in Henry VII’s reign’.
Rebels hesitate and camp at Blackheath, not sure whether to negotiate.
The hesitation allows royal troops to arrive from the North, the rebels are defeated on 17 June and more than a thousand were killed on the battlefield.
An Gof and Thomas Flamank are hanged, drawn and quartered. Parts of their body are displayed in disloyal towns.

1.7 Lambert Simnel (1486-87):

Trained by Yorkists to have excellent manners etc, even though he was of common birth. He pretended to be Edward, Earl of Warwick (leading Yorkist claimant).
Simnel was supported by Margaret of Burgundy (sister of Richard III).
Margaret raised 2,000 mercenaries, led by Martin Schwartz, they set sail for Ireland in April 1487. Many of the Irish magnates accepted Simnel and he got support there too.
Simnel was crowned as Edward VI in Dublin Cathedral.
Henry paraded the real Earl of Warwick through the streets of London (he had been locked up in the Tower of London and was not dead as the Yorkists had assumed).
Simnel’s forces landed in Lancashire in June 1487, they tried to get support in Cumbria and north Yorkshire, but got a poor response.
Simnel’s 8,000 men were easily defeated by Henry’s 12,000 men.
Simnel was forgiven and given a job as the King’s falconer. Henry punished some offenders with fines, rarely executions. Only 28 men were attainted.

1.8 Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk (1499-1506):

Unlike Simnel and Warbeck, de la Pole had a genuine claim to the throne. He was the nephew of Richard III.
His brother John had fought against Henry and been killed early in his reign. Edmund was punished by being forced to pay £5,000 just to inherit some of his father’s land. He was also not allowed to inherit his father’s ducal title, which was extremely humiliating.
Edmund fled to Burgundy in July 1499, came back, then fled again in summer 1501.
He called himself ‘The White Rose’ and asked for support from Burgundy and Maximilian (Holy Roman Emperor).
On the 19th June 1502, Henry signed the Treaty of Aachen and promised Maximilian 10,000 crowns towards his war with Turkey whilst Maximilian agreed to stop giving refuge to Henry’s enemies, notably Edmund de la Pole. He was not captured until 1506 when Philip of Burgundy was shipwrecked in England with de la Pole on board.
HENRY SUSPENDED ALL TRADE WITH BURGUNDY in January 1505.
Philip blew onto the English coast in a freak storm and Henry was able to negotiate the return of de la Pole. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London.
Can tell from Henry’s responses that he considered de la Pole to be a great threat and if it hadn’t been for the Italian wars occupying the attention of Europe, he might have received the support of a European power.

1.9 Dealing with the Nobility:

Patronage – Earl of Oxford (became major land owner in East Anglia), Jasper Tudor (made Duke of Bedford, restored to his Welsh estates), Earl of Derby (kept control of Lancashire and Cheshire) and Lord Willoughby de Broke (also rewarded). All rewarded for supporting Henry before the Battle of Bosworth.
Patronage – Earl of Shrewbury, Giles Daubeney (promoted to peerage), Reginald Bray (land over 18 counties, worth more than £1000 a year), Edmund Dudley (made a King’s councillor). All were rewarded for good service to the King.
ORDER OF THE GARTER (see above).
King’s Council – John Morton and William Warham kept their positions for long periods, showing that trusted advisors remained in posts close to the King.
King’s Council – Treasurer position was held first by Lord Dinham, then by the Earl of Surrey.
King’s Council – Richard Fox became Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1487, he kept this position until 1516.
King’s Council – five key councillors had aligned themselves with Henry before Bosworth. These were: Reginald Bray, Giles Daubeney, Richard Guildford, Thomas Lovell and John Riselly.
Great Council – Called together to discuss major issues. The idea was that if they had been consulted, nobles couldn’t turn against the King and criticise the policy.
Great Council – Called in 1485 (Henry’s marriage), 1487 (Lambert Simnel threat), 1488 (money for the campaign in Brittany), 1491 (authorised war against France) and 1496 (loan of £120,000 for war in Scotland).
Acts of Attainder (land confiscation) – Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey fought against Henry at Bosworth and in March 1486, he was imprisoned and attainted. He swore an oath of allegiance in January 1489 and his lands were slowly returned as a reward for good service.
Acts of Attainder – Edward IV passed more (140) than Henry (138). Henry cancelled more (46) than Edward IV (42). Shows how Henry used it as a carrot and a stick. However, Henry often attached harsh payments and conditions when he reversed attainders. Thomas Tyrell had to pay £1,738. Henry also passed more attainders as his reign went on.
Bonds (promises of good behaviour, if broken they get fined) and Recognisances (formal agreement that you owe a debt) – Thomas Grey, Marquis of Dorset, was not trusted by Henry. In 1492, he had to pay a recognisance of £1,000 and find others who would give recognisances worth £10000 on his behalf. By 1499, Grey had proven his loyalty to Henry and these were cancelled.
Bonds and Recognisances – Between 1485 and 1509, 36 out of 62 noble families gave bonds and/or recognisances to Henry. There was only one in the whole of Yorkist rule.
Feudal Dues (asserting rights over the nobility) – Katherine Dowager, Duchess of Buckingham fined £7,000 in 1496 for marrying without the King’s licence. Her son, Edward, Duke of Buckingham was fined £7,000 in 1498 for claiming his inheritance without licence, before he was 21.
Feudal Dues – Proceeds from wardship (King took over lands when nobles were too young to inherit, until they came of age) and marriage increased from £350 in 1487 to £6,000 in 1507.
Retaining (having your own private army) – Lords and Commons had to swear in 1485 parliament that they would not retain illegally.
Retaining – 1504 proclamations ensured that nobles had to get licences to retain. They had to get these from the King in person. This Act carried a penalty of £5 per month, for each illegal retainer.
Retaining – 1506, Lord Burgavenny fined £70,550, even though this was scaled down and divided amongst 26 others, it was still a huge fine.
Retaining – Earl of Devon gave a recognisance not to retain in 1494. Broke the promise in 1506 and was forced to pay part of the sum due.
Retaining – Henry failed to stamp it out, but it did reduce. Nobles were secretive and no written records exist of illegal retaining.
Crown Lands – So that he could keep his own lands, Henry rewarded nobles with lands he had taken from others through Acts of Attainder. When they tried to win their lands back, they had to prove they were even more loyal than the noble Henry had given their lands to.

1.10 Finances:

Act of Resumption (1486) allowed Henry to greatly increase crown lands. Crown lands were 5 times larger by the end of Henry’s reign than they were in the 1450s.
Crown lands were worth £15,000 a year under Edward IV, only £3,000 a year in the early part of Henry’s reign.
In 1495 an Act of Parliament confirmed to Henry VII all the land of Richard III.
Acts of attainder also allowed Henry to increase his lands, 183 during his reign, though 46 were reversed.
In 1487, feudal obligations made under £350 per year, in 1494 it was over £1,500 and in 1507 it was over £6,000.
In 1502, Robert Willoughby de Broke paid £400 for livery of his lands (recovery from wardship).
In 1491, friends of the Marquis of Dorset signed bonds totalling £10,000 as a promise of his good behaviour.
Customs duties were worth £70,000 during Edward IV’s reign, £30,000 under Henry VI (decline in wool exports) and £40,000 under Henry VII – Book of Rates in 1507 took inflation into account.
Parliamentary grants (allowed by parliament when the national interest was threatened), were requested in 1487 (Battle of Stoke), 1489 (French war) and 1496 (against the Scots and Warbeck). Usually worth £30,000.
Henry got loans worth £203,000 in his reign. He appears to have repaid these.
In 1491, Henry got a benevolence (forced loan) of £48,500 to take his army to France.
Clerical tax = in 1489 the Convocations (Archdioceses of Canterbury and York), voted £25,000 towards the cost of the French war.
Simony (selling Church appointments) = Henry charged £300 for the Archdeaconry of Buckingham.
Vacant Bishoprics (Bishop died, Henry looked after his land and took the money for a time) = over £6000 per year.
Knighting of Prince Arthur (1504) = £30,000 levied from nobles.
French Pension (Treaty of Etaples 1492) = £159,000 in annual payments of £5,000.
Dudley and Empson (council learned in the law) = used old laws to extort money from nobles, causing great anger amongst nobles.
Thomas Sunif = Dudley accused Sunif of murdering a child, this would have meant that he broke a bond. The charge was £500. Sunif refused to pay and went to prison, the jury was rigged and he was found guilty of a crime he didn’t commit. Ended up paying.

2.1 France:

Breton Crisis (1487-92) = The French wanted to take back the only part of the channel coast that was not under their control, Brittany. They sent a force into Brittany in 1488.
Breton Crisis = HRE and Spain send support to Brittany and Henry unofficially sends a small force of 500 men, but their armies are still defeated in July 1488 and the Duke of Brittany is killed. The new ruler, Anne of Brittany, is seized by the French.
Breton Crisis = Brittany again asks England for help and Henry decides that he can’t allow the channel coast to be entirely controlled by the French (other than Calais). He signs the Treaty of Redon (February 1489), sending 6,000 English troops to fight for Breton independence. Anne of Brittany agrees to pay for the campaign and not to marry without Henry’s permission.
Breton Crisis = The Spanish and the HRE make peace with France behind Henry’s back and Brittany is forced to surrender. Anne of Brittany marries Charles VIII in December 1491, leaving England in an embarrassing position.
Henry prepared an invasion fleet, but didn’t sail for France until mid-September 1492. He then remained at his garrison in Calais for a month, before setting out with 26,000 men to besiege Boulogne. Fighting never happened in winter, so this ensured it would not be a long war.
The French wanted a quick peace, as they were distracted by the situation in Italy, so there were only 2 days of fighting, with 12 people wounded.
The Treaty of Etaples (November 1492) = Agreed £159,000 French pension for Henry, paid in instalments of £5,000 a year. The French also promised not to support Perkin Warbeck.
Italian Wars (1494-1509) = In 1494, France invaded Italy, starting the Italian wars. The HRE and Spain wanted England to attack France.
Italian Wars = Henry agreed to join the Holy League in 1496, but only as an honorary member. Henry made it clear that he would not attack France and he would honour the Treaty of Etaples, which he renewed in 1498. Henry stays out of the Italian wars, which continue until his death.

2.2 Spain:

England had a great trade connection with Spain’s neighbour Portugal, Henry renewed this treaty in 1489.
Treaty of Medina del Campo (March 1489) = Prince Arthur would marry Catherine of Aragon, allying England and Spain. Catherine’s dowry, paid in instalments to Henry, was set at £40,000. Spain promised not to help any English rebels. Reduced tariffs on trade between England and Spain. If either country went to war with France, the other one would help.
Treaty of Medina del Campo = This was the biggest foreign policy achievement of Henry’s reign. He had the recognition of a foreign power for his legitimacy as a ruler. As a result, he created a new gold coin with him wearing an imperial crown, showing he was more confident of his position.
Death of Prince Arthur (April 1502) places alliance with Spain in doubt. Prince Henry is betrothed to Catherine in June 1503, but this marriage does not take place until after the death of Henry VII.
Castillian Succession Crisis (1504-1506) = Isabella of Castille died and left Castille to her daughter Joanna. This separated Aragon and Castille, ending the union of Spain.
Castillian Succession Crisis = Joanna was married to Philip of Burgundy. They wanted Castille, but Ferdinand of Aragon wanted to hold on to it. Henry decided to support Philip, as an alliance with a weak Aragon was pointless.
Castillian Succession Crisis = Ferdinand made an alliance with France (Treaty of Blois in 1505). Philip set sail for Castille to help Joanna, but became shipwrecked on the English coast.
Castillian Succession Crisis = While he was in England (at Henry’s mercy), Henry negotiated the return of Edmund de la Pole. Henry also agreed to support Philip and Joanna’s claim to Castille by cancelling debts of £138,000.
Castillian Succession Crisis = After arriving in Spain, Philip suddenly died and Joanna had a mental breakdown, leaving Ferdinand to take over Castille. Henry tried to arrange a marriage alliance, but he was unable to, (though one did occur soon after his death).

2.3 Burgundy:

Intercursus Magnus (1496) = established free trade between England and Burgundy. The cloth trade with Burgundy was the most important trade to England and this treaty allowed Henry and English merchants to make lots of money.
Henry suspended trade with Burgundy in 1505, as they refused to return Edmund de la Pole.
Intercursus Malus (April 1506) = This was negotiated when Philip was shipwrecked in England at the mercy of Henry. Edmund de la Pole was returned, so trade could continue. But the terms of this treaty were so favourable to the English that Burgundian merchants complained and the Intercursus Malus was never implemented. Instead, they went back to the terms of the Intercursus Magnus.
1506 - Henry attempted to marry Philip’s sister Margaret of Austria as Elizabeth of York had died in 1503.
September 1506 - Philip died and Margaret became de facto ruler. She repudiated the marriage and treaty so it was not ratified.
1507 - Third treaty established reinstating the terms of Magnus.

2.4 Scotland:

Auld Alliance (1295) = This ancient alliance between Scotland and France was the biggest threat to England, as they could be attacked on two fronts.
The Scots captured Dunbar in 1486, but Henry ignored this and signed a three-year truce with them in July 1486.
Battle of Sauchieburn (1488) = James III is killed by his own rebellious nobles. They put James IV on the throne, but he is only 15, so a group of anti-English nobles control the country.
Henry sheltered Scottish nobles who were driven out of Scotland and in 1492, he supported them. They managed to take back control and drive out the anti-English nobles. The Pro-English Earl of Angus took control and a 9-year truce was signed in1493.
In 1495, James IV came of age and wanted to prove himself against the English. He supported Perkin Warbeck (arrived in Scotland July 1495), gave him a royal welcome and married him to his cousin – Lady Catherine Gordon.
James IV provided military support for Warbeck’s invasion of England in September 1496, but this failed, as it had no support in England.
James IV was worried about Henry’s revenge, so when Henry offered a truce, he accepted. This was the Truce of Ayton (1497).
Treaty of Perpetual Peace (January 1502) = The execution of Perkin Warbeck turned the truce into a full peace treaty. This was significant, as no peace treaty had existed between England and Scotland since 1328.
Treaty of Perpetual Peace = This was sealed with the marriage of Princess Margaret to James IV in August 1503.
Despite the peace, border raids continued chiefly conducted by the Scottish Borders Reivers Gangs who stole sheep and horses. James IV built up his navy, founding a new port at Newhaven in 1504. The Auld Alliance did not end. Tension with Scotland continued, so you can argue that the Scottish problem was not completely solved.

2.5 Leagues:

League of Venice (1495) = Includes Pope, Maximilian I (HRE), Ferdinand II (Aragon), State of Venice, State of Milan. Aim was to kick the French out of the Italian States. Henry was left out of it.
Holy League (1496) = Includes Spain, Papal States, State of Milan, State of Venice. Aim was to stop Charles VIII (French) attacks in the Italian states. Henry was invited to take part, which shows his greater status on the European stage. Henry joins as an honorary member, but makes it clear that he is not willing to attack France.
League of Cambrai (December 1508) = Includes France, England and the Netherlands. Aim was to create an anti-Ferdinand (Spain) alliance. Louis XII (France) changes his mind, as he doesn’t want to annoy Ferdinand. Louis XII changes it into an anti-Venice league instead, England is isolated. But members of the League still had good relations with England.