Lecture Notes on Presupposition and Entailment
Presupposition & Entailment
Definitions
Presupposition
Presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case before making an utterance. For example:
[1] Jane stopped smoking. Presupposition: Jane used to smoke.
Entailment
Entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. It is a logical consequence of the utterance made. For example:
Jane does not smoke.
Entailment
Entailment refers to a relationship between two propositions/statements.
[1] a. John forgot to call Mary. b. J did not call M.
[2] a. Sting is a great singer. b. Sting is a singer / Sting is alive.
[3] a. Michael Jackson is a great singer. b. MJ is alive???
a >> b (a entails b)
Constancy under negation
Presuppositions are also constant under negation, which is called constancy under negation. It entails the same logical conclusion.
[1] a. Mary’s dog isn’t cute. (=p) b. Mary has a dog. (=q)
[2] a. Everybody knows / doesn’t know that John’s divorced. b. John is divorced.
p >> q (p presupposes q)
Types of Presuppositions
(1) Existential Presupposition
Existential Presupposition is constructed by the use of definite nouns phrases (NPs).
[3] a. The King of Sweden turned to 80 today. b. The girl next door had an accident.
(2) Factive Presuppositions
Factive Presuppositions are constructed by the use of a number of VERBs such as the following:
[4]
| Proposition / Statement | Presupposition |
|---|---|
| a. I didn’t know he had an accident. | >> he had an accident |
| b. She didn’t realize he was ill. | >> he was/is ill |
| c. We regret telling him. | >> we told him |
| d. I wasn’t aware she was married. | >> she was/is married |
| e. It’s odd that he left early. | >> he left early |
| f. I’m glad it’s over. | >> it’s over |
(3) Lexical Presuppositions
Lexical Presuppositions are constructed by the use of a number of LEXICAL PHRASES such as the following:
[5]
| Proposition / Statement | Presupposition |
|---|---|
| a. He managed to escape. | >> he tried to escape and he did |
| b. He couldn’t manage to escape. | >> he tried but he couldn’t |
| c. He stopped smoking. | >> he used to smoke |
| d. They started complaining. | >> they were not complaining before… |
| e. You’re late again. | >> you were late before |
| f. Are you still such a bad driver? | >> You were such a bad driver … |
(4) Structural Presuppositions
Structural Presuppositions are constructed by the use certain sentence structures such as wh- forms
[6]
| Proposition / Statement | Presupposition |
|---|---|
| a. When did he leave? | >> he left |
| b. Where did you buy the bike? | >> you bought a bike |
| c. How did the accident happen? | >> it happened |
| d. Who do you represent? | >> you represent |
| e. Where did he go? | >> he left |
(5) Non-factive Presuppositions
Non-factive Presuppositions are assumed not to be true
[7]
| Proposition / Statement | Presupposition |
|---|---|
| a. I dreamed that I was rich. | >> I was not rich. |
| b. We imagined we were in Hawaii. | >> We were not in Hawaii |
| c. He pretends to be ill. | >> He is not ill |
| d. ‘Fifty-thousand dollars, Arthur’ Norma said, ‘A chance to take that trip to Europe we’ve always talked about’. | >> They had not a chance to take a trip to Europe |
(6) Counter Factual Presuppositions
Counter Factual Presuppositions are assumed to be the opposite of what is true, or contrary to the facts
[7]
| Proposition / Statement | Presupposition |
|---|---|
| a. If you were my friend, you would have helped me. | >> you are NOT my friend and you didn’t help me … |
| b. If he hadn’t made such a terrible mistake, we would be very happy now. | >> he made a terrible mistake, and he is NOT happy now … |
| c. If I were rich, I’d buy a Ferrari! | >> I am NOT rich … |
Summary: Potential Presuppositions
| Type | Example | Presupposition |
|---|---|---|
| 1) Existential | the X | >> X exists |
| 2) Factive | I regret leaving. | >> I left |
| 3) Non-factive | He pretended to be happy. | >> He wasn’t happy |
| 4) Lexical | He managed to escape. | >> He tried to escape |
| 5) Structural | When did she die? | >> She died |
| 6) Counter-factual | If I weren’t ill, … | >> I am ill |
The Projection Problem
Including moments of embarrassment:
• Have you read the book, Madonna in a fur coat?
• Ah yes, of course! And I love Madonna, she is such a great singer.
A. !?!?.. Presupposition? … Entailment? …
The Projection Problem
Including moments of embarrassment:
A young YouTuber (suggesting books to read):
The next novel I can suggest is ‘Abasıyanık’ by Said Faik. [Sıradaki kitabımız Said Faik’in ‘Abasıyanık’ isimli romanı]
Presupposition? … Entailment? …
The Projection Problem
USE this strategy when you are NOT very sure!
Softening presuppositions:
• What’s that guy doing in the parking lot?
• He’s looking for his car or something.
Presupposition? … Entailment? …
Entailments: Background vs Foreground
Example, Rover chased three squirrels.
Background entailments:
Something happened.
Something chased three of something
Something chased three squirrels
Etc.
Foreground entailments:
ROVER chased three squirrels.
Rover chased THREE squirrels.
Foreground Entailment
Foreground entailment can be made by the use of ‘it-cleft’.
It was ROVER that chased the squirrels.
It wasn’t ME who took your money.
Presuppositions in Advertising
COFFE
Careful, the beverage you're about to enjoy is extremely hot.
Presuppositions in Advertising
ROOKLY
YOU DO NOT HAVE TO CROSS
A BRIDGE TO HAVE
A GREAT BEER!
SIMPLY GO TO YOUR
LOCAL STORE!
Presuppositions in Advertising
According to a recent Nationwide study:
MORE DOCTORS SMOKE CAMELS
THAN ANY OTHER CIGARETTE
Presuppositions in Court Cases!
ATTORNEYS are good at PRAGMATIC strategies!
«How fast was the person driving when he crossed the red light?» (He crossed the red light!)
Ah sorry! I did NOT see him crossing at the red light ….
He was over 70km/h, I think.