Western Classical Tradition 1650 to 1910 (AQA)
1. Baroque Period (c. 1600–1750)
The Baroque period was characterized by ornate, expressive, and highly decorative music, often featuring elaborate melodies and a sense of grandeur. The music was heavily influenced by the Age of Absolutism, where European monarchs like Louis XIV of France promoted elaborate artistic styles to showcase power. It is also influenced by religion and courtly life, with many works composed for the church, opera houses, and royal courts.
A key feature was the use of contrapuntal textures, meaning multiple independent melodic lines were played simultaneously, creating a rich and complex sound. This period also saw the rise of virtuosity, with composers writing extremely challenging music for skilled instrumentalists and singers.
a. Melody
Melody in Baroque music was often long, flowing, and highly ornamented, making extensive use of trills, mordents, appoggiaturas, and turns to add complexity. Many melodies were based on sequences, meaning repeated patterns that ascend or descend in pitch, creating a sense of direction. Phrases were often uneven in length, giving the music an unpredictable and dynamic quality. The use of imitation (where one instrument or voice repeats a melody that another has just played) was also common, especially in fugues.
b. Harmony
It was based on the major-minor tonal system, which replaced the earlier modal system. Chord progressions followed functional harmony, meaning that certain chords led naturally to others, reinforcing the key. Modulations (key changes) were frequent, often moving to closely related keys such as the dominant or relative minor. Chords were built using figured bass notation, where a keyboard player (harpsichord or organ) would improvise harmonies based on a written bass line.
c. Dynamics
It typically used terraced dynamics, meaning abrupt shifts between loud and soft rather than gradual changes. This was due to the limitations of Baroque keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord, which could not vary volume dynamically. Unlike later periods, composers did not write many dynamic markings, leaving the interpretation up to performers. However, dramatic contrasts in dynamics were still achieved through orchestration and texture changes, such as alternating between a full ensemble and a solo instrument.
d. Forms
Forms commonly used in Baroque music included binary form (AB), ternary form (ABA), ritornello form (alternating tutti and solo sections), fugue, and suite. The concerto grosso, where a small group of soloists was contrasted with the larger orchestra, became a popular instrumental form. Vocal works included the oratorio, a large-scale religious composition similar to opera but without staging, and opera, which combined music, drama, and stage performance. Key Baroque composers include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, and Antonio Vivaldi, with famous works such as Brandenburg Concertos, Messiah, and The Four Seasons.
e. Musical Forms
Binary form (AB): Common in dance movements.
Ternary form (ABA): Used in da capo arias and instrumental pieces.
Fugue: A highly structured contrapuntal form, based on imitative counterpoint.
Concerto Grosso: A small group of soloists contrasts with the full orchestra.
Solo Concerto: Features a single solo instrument against an orchestral background.
Suite: A collection of dance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue).
Opera and Oratorio: Both used recitative (speech-like singing) and arias (lyrical solos), but oratorios were religious and not staged.
f. Notable Composers
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750): Brandenburg Concertos, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Mass in B Minor, Toccata and Fugue in D Minor.
George Frideric Handel (1685–1759): Messiah, Water Music, Music for the Royal Fireworks.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741): The Four Seasons, Gloria.
2. Classical Period (c. 1750–1820)
The Classical period saw a shift toward clarity, balance, and order, moving away from the complexity of the Baroque period. Music became more homophonic, meaning a clear melody was supported by chordal accompaniment rather than multiple independent melodic lines.
The structure of music became more predictable and symmetrical, with phrases typically in four- or eight-bar lengths following a question-and-answer format. The period was influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment, emphasizing reason, simplicity, and accessibility in the arts.
The orchestra expanded, with a greater distinction between strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion sections. The string section remained the foundation, but woodwind instruments such as the clarinet were introduced, and brass instruments developed valves, allowing for greater flexibility. The timpani became a standard part of the orchestra, used to reinforce climactic moments. Composers experimented with different instrumental colors, leading to more varied and expressive orchestration.
a. Harmony
Its harmony remained based on functional tonality, but composers focused on diatonic (within the key) chords and clear, logical progressions. Cadences became more pronounced, reinforcing the sense of musical closure, with perfect cadences (V–I) frequently used to signal the end of a phrase. Modulations to related keys, such as the dominant or relative minor, were used to create variety and contrast. Alberti bass, a broken chord accompaniment pattern often played on the piano, became a hallmark of Classical harmony.
b. Dynamics
It became more expressive, moving beyond the abrupt terraced changes of the Baroque period. Composers began using gradual dynamic changes such as crescendo (gradually getting louder) and diminuendo (gradually getting softer) to add emotional depth. The invention and growing popularity of the pianoforte allowed for more expressive playing, as it could vary in volume depending on how hard the keys were struck. Composers also used sforzando (sudden strong accents) to highlight important notes or moments.
c. Forms
Forms such as sonata form (exposition, development, recapitulation), minuet and trio, theme and variations, and rondo became standard. The symphony emerged as a major genre, alongside the string quartet, piano sonata, and concerto. Opera also continued to develop, with composers like Mozart and Beethoven expanding its dramatic and expressive range. Famous works from this period include Mozart’s Symphony No. 40, Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5, and Haydn’s Surprise Symphony.
d. Musical Forms
Sonata Form (Exposition, Development, Recapitulation): Used in symphonies, sonatas, and chamber music.
Symphony: Large-scale orchestral work, typically in four movements (fast–slow–dance–fast).
Concerto: A solo instrument accompanied by an orchestra, usually in three movements.
String Quartet: A small chamber ensemble (two violins, viola, cello).
Opera Buffa & Opera Seria: Comic opera vs. serious, dramatic opera.
e. Notable Composers
Joseph Haydn (1732–1809): Surprise Symphony, The Creation, String Quartets.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791): Eine kleine Nachtmusik, The Magic Flute, Symphony No. 40.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827): Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 9, Moonlight Sonata.
3. Romantic Period (c. 1820–1910)
The Romantic period emphasized emotion, drama, and individual expression, with composers seeking to convey deep feelings and personal experiences through music. Themes of nature, fantasy, love, and the supernatural were common, influenced by Romantic literature and art. Music became more programmatic, meaning it told a story or painted a scene, such as in Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake and Wagner’s The Ring Cycle. The style was characterized by intense contrasts, unpredictable phrases, and powerful climaxes.
a. Melody
Its melody was long, expressive, and highly ornamented, with wide leaps, dynamic shaping, and greater use of chromaticism. Themes often had a nationalistic character, incorporating folk melodies or rhythms from a composer’s native country. The phrase structure became more fluid and unpredictable, breaking away from the strict symmetry of the Classical period. The use of leitmotifs, short musical ideas representing characters or emotions, became prominent in opera, especially in Wagner’s works.
b. Harmony
Harmony became more chromatic and complex, with greater use of dissonance, unexpected key changes, and extended chords. Composers frequently used modulations to distant keys, creating a more dramatic and expressive harmonic language. The use of augmented and diminished chords added tension and instability, enhancing the emotional impact of the music. Some late Romantic composers, such as Wagner and Mahler, pushed the boundaries of tonality, paving the way for atonal and modernist music.
c. Dynamics
With pieces often including ppp (very soft) to fff (very loud) and sudden shifts in volume. The use of rubato, where performers slightly speed up or slow down the tempo for expressive effect, became common. Orchestras grew significantly in size, with more instruments added for a richer and more powerful sound. This allowed for greater contrasts in timbre, as seen in Tchaikovsky’s dramatic use of brass and strings.
d. Forms
It became more flexible and expressive, moving away from rigid Classical structures. The symphonic poem, a single-movement orchestral work that tells a story, became popular, as did programmatic symphonies (symphonies with a narrative). The art song (Lied), a composition for solo voice and piano, gained popularity, with composers like Schubert and Schumann leading the way. Key Romantic composers include Chopin, Tchaikovsky, Brahms, and Wagner, with famous works such as Nocturnes, 1812 Overture, and Ride of the Valkyries.
e. Musical Forms
Program Symphony: A multi-movement work telling a story (Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique).
Symphonic Poem: A single-movement orchestral piece depicting a scene or story.
Opera: Became more dramatic and expressive, with leitmotifs (recurring themes associated with characters or ideas) in Wagner’s operas.
Lied (Art Song): A song for solo voice and piano, setting poetry to music (Schubert’s Erlkönig).
f. Notable Composers
Franz Schubert (1797–1828): Erlkönig, Ave Maria, Unfinished Symphony.
Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849): Nocturnes, Polonaises, Ballades.
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893): Swan Lake, 1812 Overture, Nutcracker.
Richard Wagner (1813–1883): The Ring Cycle, Tristan und Isolde.
Johannes Brahms (1833–1897):Hungarian Dances, German Requiem.