Chapter 8 - Alternatives to Inverted-U Theory: Comprehensive Study Notes (Flow, IZOF, Directionality, Catastrophe, and Reversal Theories)

Flow and the orthogonal model

  • Flow is defined as the degree to which an individual is absorbed in a task; it is not simply a peak moment or peak performance, and not every autotelic (intrinsically rewarding) experience equals a personal best score in performance.
  • Flow can be dissociated from peak performance: an athlete may achieve a personal best yet not experience what they consider a peak flow experience, and conversely may have an autotelic experience without achieving a personal best.
  • Flow facilitators and preventers (Table 8.1):
    • Facilitators:
    • Development of a positive mental attitude
    • Positive precompetitive affect
    • Positive competitive affect (during contest)
    • Maintaining appropriate attentional focus
    • Physical readiness (perception of being prepared)
    • Unity with teammates and/or coach
    • Preventers:
    • Experiencing physical problems and mistakes
    • Inability to maintain appropriate attentional focus
    • Negative mental attitude
    • Lack of audience response
  • The orthogonal model of flow (high skill × high personal challenge) (Figure 8.7):
    • High challenge + high skill → Flow
    • High challenge + low skill → Anxiety
    • Low challenge + low skill → Apathy
    • Low challenge + high skill → Boredom
  • Masters Games study (Jackson, Ford, Kimiecik, & Marsh, 1998):
    • 398 athletes; dispositional flow measured in a non-competitive Masters setting and flow immediately after a competitive event
    • Findings:
    • Both trait and state flow are correlated with perceived ability (supporting the flow–skill–challenge linkage in Figure 8.7)
    • Both trait and state flow are negatively correlated with competitive trait anxiety (positive affect facilitates flow; anxiety is antithetical to flow)
    • Both trait and state flow are positively correlated with intrinsic motivation (flow strongly aligned with intrinsic motivation; also linked to IZOF)
    • Relationship to intrinsic motivation: flow closely associated with intrinsic motivation (Martin & Cutler, 2002); autonomy, competence, and relatedness are antecedents of flow athlete engagement (Hodge, Lonsdale, & Jackson, 2009)
  • Mindfulness and flow (Kee & Wang, 2008):
    • Mindfulness is predictive of flow characteristics such as challenge–skill balance, merging of action and awareness, clear goals, concentration, and loss of consciousness (defining components of flow)
    • Mindfulness measured via Mindfulness/Mindlessness Scale (MMS; Bodner & Langer, 2001)
  • Flow and flow-related concepts
    • Flow is related to autotelic experience and intrinsic motivation; often discussed in conjunction with IZOF (though conceptually distinct)
    • Mindfulness fosters the cognitive state that supports flow (present focus, clear goals, absorbed attention)

Jones’s Directionality Theory of precompetitive anxiety

  • Core idea: the intensity of anxiety matters less than how that intensity is perceived to affect performance (direction component)
  • Intensity vs direction vs frequency (CSAI-2R):
    • Intensity: absolute level of anxiety (0–max) for a given state
    • Direction: perception of whether a given intensity is facilitative or debilitative relative to performance
    • Frequency: how often anxiety symptoms are experienced
  • CSAI-2R measurement details (Martinent et al., 2010):
    • For each item, intensity rated on a 4-point scale: I ∈
      {1,2,3,4}
    • Direction on a -3 to +3 scale: D ∈
      {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
    • Frequency on a 1–7 scale: F ∈
      {1, …, 7}
    • Higher positive directional scores suggest facilitative effects; negative scores suggest debilitative effects
  • Correlations among CSAI-2R components (Martinent et al., 2010):
    • Intensity and direction: negative for somatic and cognitive anxiety; positive for self-confidence
    • Intensity and frequency: positive for all three measures
    • Direction and frequency: weak positive for somatic anxiety and self-confidence; negative for cognitive anxiety
  • Practical implication: Directionality is predictive of performance; distinguishing between facilitative and debilitative interpretations of anxiety is more informative than raw intensity alone

Shifting the direction of precompetitive anxiety

  • Concept: Rather than trying to minimize anxiety intensity, coaches can help athletes perceive high anxiety as facilitative
  • Empirical support for shifting direction:
    • Page, Sime, & Nordell (1999): five weeks of imagery training helped athletes view precompetitive state anxiety as conducive to performance
    • Hanton & Jones (1999a, 1999b) and Thomas, Maynard, & Hanton (2007): multiple baseline single-subject designs (MBSSD) showed training could foster more facilitative interpretations of anxiety
  • MBSSD basics (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996): small-N design with stable baselines before intervention; post-intervention performance monitored for significant effects
  • Summary: Direction of anxiety can be modified through psychological skills, imagery, and cognitive restructuring to shift from debilitative to facilitative interpretations

Anxiety—direction and time to event

  • Time-to-event effects on intensity patterns (Chapter 7 reference): cognitive anxiety intensity tends to be high early and rise toward start time; somatic anxiety starts low and rises sharply toward start, then drops once the event begins
  • Directional patterns (Thomas, Maynard, & Hanton, 2004; Thomas, Hanton, & Maynard, 2007):
    • For national/regional level athletes: directional scores are flat up to ~24 hours before competition, then drop significantly about 1 hour before start
    • Frequency scores for both cognitive and somatic anxiety increase steadily from 7 days to 1 hour before competition, mirroring intensity patterns
  • Qualitative follow-up (Thomas et al., 2007): elite female hockey players showed two groups (facilitators and debilitors) with divergent coping strategies; facilitators used coping strategies consistently to counter rising anxiety, debilitaters focused on mistakes post-match

Other relationships related to direction of anxiety

  • Perceived personal control as a moderator (Hanton & Connaughton, 2002):
    • In swimmers, if athletes perceive control over debilitative effects of anxiety, intensity can have a facilitative effect on performance and self-confidence
    • If perceived control is low, intensity can lead to declines in performance and self-confidence
  • Self-confidence as mediator (Mellalieu, Neil, & Hanton, 2006):
    • The relationship between anxiety intensity and anxiety direction is mediated by self-confidence and moderated by skill level
    • Elite athletes: self-confidence mediates the relationship for cognitive intensity and cognitive direction, but not for somatic components
    • Non-elite athletes: self-confidence partially mediates for both somatic and cognitive intensity–direction relationships
    • Overall: self-confidence is instrumental in determining how anxiety intensity affects direction

Emotion and direction of influence (Martinent & Ferrand, 2009)

  • Study: 11 French national-level male table tennis players identified nine emotions (anger, anxiety, discouragement, disappointment, disgust, joy, relief, serenity, hope)
  • For each emotion, four directional influence categories emerged: positive, negative, neutral, and no perceived influence
  • Conclusion: Each emotion can have either a positive or negative directional effect depending on the situation; even negative emotions can sometimes facilitate performance by increasing motivation, while positive emotions can sometimes impair performance by reducing concentration

Reversal Theory (Apter)

  • Core idea: Reversal theory describes how motivation shifts between two dominant frame-of-mind orientations (metamotivational states):
    • Telic-dominant: goal-directed, serious; tends to view arousal as unpleasant and stressful (anxiety-avoidance)
    • Paratelic-dominant: here-and-now, fun-loving; tends to view arousal as exciting and exhilarating (anxiety-seeking)
  • Reversals are not fixed traits; individuals can switch between telic and paratelic orientations depending on context
  • Metamotivational: the switching between telic and paratelic states is termed a metamotivational reversal
  • Three interacting factors inducing reversals: (a) contingent events, (b) frustration, (c) satiation
  • Illustrative stories:
    • Skydiver example: after a friend’s death, a paratelic thrill-seeking skydiver experiences a psychological reversal to telic sensation-avoiding orientation, contributing to stopping skydiving and deep depression
    • 1972 Munich Olympics: U.S. men’s basketball team experiences a telic-to-paratelic shift mid-game when they believe they have won, only to have the clock reset; the shift leads to a missed opportunity and silver medal discontent
  • Reversal theory also considers three additional bipolar pairs beyond telic-paratelic: negativist-conformist, autic-alloic, and mastery-sympathy
  • Empirical work on reversals shows they are common across sports and can occur within a single event (e.g., five reversals among five golf team members; 65% due to contingent events, 29% due to frustration, 6% due to satiation)
  • Practical implications: athletes should be prepared to recognize and manage reversals; tailor interventions to shift hedonic tone (pleasure seeking) rather than simply increasing or decreasing arousal
  • Figure references (8.9, 8.10) illustrate arousal–hedonic tone relationships for telic vs paratelic modes and options available when high anxiety or boredom arises

Reversal theory: practical applications and guidance

  • In telic mode: decrease arousal via stress-management strategies (e.g., progressive relaxation) or induce reversal to paratelic mode to view anxiety as exciting and challenging
  • In paratelic mode: increase arousal to induce excitement (psyching-up) or reverse to telic mode to view the situation as relaxing and calm
  • Concept & application 8.8 emphasizes the importance of interpreting arousal differently; hedonic tone is the driver for optimal performance, not merely arousal level
  • Best performance occurs when an athlete’s preferred arousal matches actual experienced arousal and when the state aligns with their dominant metamotivational orientation
  • Qualitative findings: elite slalom canoeists often display telic orientation during hard work; paratelic orientation dominates during the actual race; this aligns with the flow experience (paratelic engagement can align with peak flow)
  • Strengths of reversal theory: flexibility and dynamic, situation-specific approach to arousal and performance
  • Limitations and cautions: research shows rapid and frequent reversals; need for practical strategies to anticipate and manage these reversals during competition

Summary of chapter: alternative theories to inverted-U

  • Martens’ multidimensional anxiety theory: anxiety is composed of cognitive (mental) and somatic (physical) components; hypothesizes a negative linear relation between cognitive state anxiety and performance and an inverted-U relation for somatic anxiety
  • Fazey and Hardy’s catastrophe theory: rejects a smooth inverted-U; suggests that at high cognitive anxiety, arousal–performance may initially rise but can catastrophically drop with further arousal when cognitive anxiety is high
  • IZOF (Hanin): individuals have an optimal zone of functioning (IZOF) for precompetitive anxiety; a narrow band of functioning around an optimal level; optimal zone is typically the optimal state anxiety plus/minus one-half standard deviation: IZOF=[Aˉ−frac12σ<em>A,Aˉ+frac12σ</em>A]IZOF = [\bar{A} - frac{1}{2}\sigma<em>A,\bar{A} + frac{1}{2}\sigma</em>A]
  • IAPZ (Individual Affect-Related Performance Zone): probabilistic model linking affect to performance; emphasizes calculating the likelihood of performance outcomes given affect levels
  • Flow: engaged, intrinsically motivated experience characterized by total absorption, defined by Jackson (1995); measured by Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2) and Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS-2) with short forms available; flow relates to intrinsic motivation and mindfulness
  • Direction of anxiety theory: emphasizes the direction component (facilitative vs debilitative) rather than intensity alone; measured via CSAI-2R; focus on changing perception rather than solely reducing anxiety
  • Apter’s reversal theory: telic–paratelic orientation with metamotivational reversals; emphasizes hedonic tone and arousal interpretation rather than simply increasing or decreasing arousal
  • The overall message: there are multiple, nuanced explanations for how arousal and anxiety influence performance; practical application requires matching theory to athlete context and individual differences

Practical and applied implications

  • When coaching or teaching, assess whether an athlete perceives anxiety as facilitative or debilitative rather than just measuring its intensity
  • Use imagery, cognitive restructuring, and mental skills training to alter the direction of anxiety (not just its magnitude)
  • Recognize that anxiety direction can be modified even in elite athletes via targeted interventions; ensure consistency of coping strategies across time-to-event phases
  • Consider the athlete’s metamotivational orientation (telic vs paratelic) and tailor arousal management accordingly; reversing to the mode that yields the highest hedonic tone can improve performance
  • Prepare athletes to anticipate metamotivational reversals and develop flexible strategies to respond to contingent events, frustration, and satiation during competition

Glossary (selected terms and definitions)

  • autotelic experience: An experience that is entered into as an end in itself; the doing is its own reward
  • core flow: Degree to which an individual is absorbed in a task
  • flow: A state of optimal experiencing involving total absorption in a task; defined as an end in itself and often associated with peak performance
  • butterfly catastrophe model: Four-dimensional catastrophe model where self-confidence can act as an additional dimension
  • catastrophe theory: A theory of arousal predicting that small changes in arousal can cause a catastrophic decline in performance
  • cusp catastrophe model: A three-dimensional catastrophe model used to describe abrupt changes in performance with arousal
  • direction component of anxiety: The athlete’s perception of whether a given intensity level of anxiety is facilitative or debilitative relative to performance
  • flow state scales (FSS-2) and dispositional flow scales (DFS-2): Instruments to measure flow experiences; short forms exist
  • introspective/absorption terms: Related to mindfulness and the present-focused attention in flow
  • IAPZ (individual affect-related performance zone): A probabilistic model linking affect levels to performance outcomes
  • IZOF (individual zones of optimal functioning): The concept of a narrow band around an optimal level of state anxiety where performance is maximized; optimal level is often defined as the mean ± half a standard deviation: IZOF=[Aˉ−frac12σ<em>A,Aˉ+frac12σ</em>A]IZOF = [\bar{A} - frac{1}{2}\sigma<em>A,\bar{A} + frac{1}{2}\sigma</em>A]
  • metamotivational: Relating to reversal theory’s concept of changing motivational states between telic and paratelic orientations
  • mindfulness: Non-judgmental focus on the here and now; predictive of flow characteristics
  • paratelic: Here-and-now orientation seeking excitement and arousal
  • telic: Goal-directed, arousal-avoidant orientation aiming for relaxation

Critical Thought Questions

1) In your opinion, are the alternatives to inverted-U theory really clear alternatives, or are they modifications in the theory’s predictions? Explain.
2) How would you test Fazey and Hardy’s catastrophe theory in an applied setting?
3) What are the practical implications of a strong directionality approach for coaching an athlete who reports high precompetitive anxiety but believes it will facilitate performance?
4) How would you form an applied plan to identify an athlete’s IZOF and use it to tailor precompetition routines?
5) How can mindfulness be integrated into training to enhance the likelihood of flow? What are potential barriers?
6) In what ways might reversal theory inform decisions about sport selection for athletes with different metamotivational orientations?
7) How would you design a small-group MBSSD-style intervention to shift directionality for a team sport? What criteria would you use to evaluate success?
8) Given the variety of theories, how would you synthesize them into a coherent, evidence-based mental skills program for improving performance under pressure?