Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis examines language beyond the sentence level, focusing on language in text and conversation.
It explores how we make sense of written and spoken language, recognize well-constructed texts, understand implicit communication, and participate in conversations.
Seinfeld's commentary illustrates how pauses can indicate the size of a favor requested, highlighting the use of language beyond its literal components.
Humans are unique in their ability to perform favors, which involves a level of cooperation not seen in other species.

Language users can interpret fragments and notices by understanding underlying relationships (e.g., cause and effect, conditional relations).
Even with ungrammatical forms, readers attempt to interpret the intended meaning rather than simply rejecting the text.
Interpretation relies on linguistic knowledge and an understanding of text structure.
Example: The "My Town" text demonstrates how readers try to make sense of grammatically incorrect language.

Cohesion refers to the ties and connections within a text, maintaining reference to people, things, and ideas.
Cohesive ties include:
- Reference: Using words to maintain reference to the same entities (e.g., father – he).
- Lexical relations: Connections between phrases (e.g., a Lincoln convertible – that car).
- Semantic relations: Terms sharing a common element of meaning (e.g., money-related words).
- Connectors: Words that mark the relationship between clauses (e.g., However).
- Verb Tenses: Consistent use of past tenses to link events.
Cohesion contributes to judgments about whether something is well written.
Cohesive structure varies across languages, affecting translation.
Example: Analysis of cohesive ties in the paragraph about the Lincoln convertible.

Coherence is the sense of 'everything fitting together well,' which exists in people's interpretation of language.
People make sense of what they read or hear based on their experience of the world.
Understanding text involves filling in gaps and creating meaningful connections not explicitly stated.
Example: The Lincoln convertible text demonstrates that connectedness is not solely based on word connections; an additional factor, coherence, is required.

Interpretation of discourse involves more than just linguistic knowledge; it requires understanding conventional actions performed by speakers.
Casual conversation relies on anticipating intentions, often with much of what is meant unsaid.
Example: Her: "That's the telephone" Him: "I'm in the bath" Her: "O.K."
- Analysis: She requests action, he gives reason for non-compliance, she undertakes the action.

Speech events vary based on speaker/hearer roles, relationships, topics, and settings.
These factors influence what is said and how it is said.
Understanding conversation involves recognizing that people take turns speaking, avoiding silence.
If simultaneous speech occurs, one speaker typically stops.
Completion points are marked by asking questions or pausing at the end of syntactic structures.
Participants signal their desire to speak through short sounds, body shifts, or facial expressions.
Example: A: "Didn’t you [know wh-" B: "[But he must’ve been there by two" A: "Yes but you knew where he was going"

Conversational styles and turn-taking strategies vary.
Differences in turn-taking conventions can lead to perceptions of 'rudeness' or 'shyness'.
Speakers may use strategies to 'hold the floor' by avoiding completion points.
Techniques include:
- Avoiding pauses at the end of sentences.
- Using connectors like "and," "and then," "so," "but."
- Placing pauses before or after verbs.
- Using hesitation markers such as "er," "em," "uh," "ah."
These strategies are common and help in negotiating social interaction.
Examples:
- A: