Study Notes on Philip B. Calkins' Research on Bengal's Ruling Group Formation (1700-1740)

Author: Philip B. Calkins
Publication: The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Aug., 1970), pp. 799-806
Date Accessed: January 24, 2018
- Source: JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2943088)

Hermann Goetz's Essay (1938):
- Title: "The Crisis of Indian Civilization in the Eighteenth and early Nineteenth Centuries"
- Goetz aimed to understand the 18th century on its own terms, advocating for recognition of its creativity and usefulness despite views of it as a period of moral and aesthetic decay.
- Emphasized that important contributions were in aesthetic appreciation rather than political or economic development.
- Asserted that the decay observed in the empire's center did not necessarily reflect provincial affairs.
Challenges to Goetz’s Perspective:
- Calkins suggested that significant political and economic changes were overlooked by Goetz.
- Examination of provincial governments, especially Bengal, where vigor and efficiency were prevalent post-Aurangzeb.

Centralized Control:
- The Mughal system organized Bengal through mansabdars (upper-level officials appointed by the central government, frequently transferred).
Local Control by Zamindars:
- Indigenous landholders (zamindars) held land control, acting as revenue collectors and maintaining peace.
- The zamindars directly remitted revenue to provincial government, creating a hierarchical system beneath them that included intermediate landholders and farmers.
- Most zamindaris were small, making Mughal control easier during the 17th century.

Shift in Political Power:
- Decline in central authority led to greater provincial autonomy as the Mughal mansabdars became entrenched within Bengal and relied more on local forces.
- Emergence of stronger zamindars assumed more governance responsibilities, forming partnerships with Mughals who became less powerful.
- Inclusion of commercial and financial interests in administrative councils during this transformation.

Introduction of Revenue Reforms:
- Initiated by Emperor Aurangzeb’s need for funds for war against the Marathas, targeted particularly at Bengal.
Revenue Demand Increase:
- Comparison of revenue demand from circa 1580 to 1700 indicated a rise of about 22.2% over 150 years, relatively minor compared to other northern provinces.
- Revenue system often did not reflect agricultural price rises or the value of currency, indicating that wealth was being siphoned elsewhere.
Beneficiaries of Wealth:
- Evidence suggests that wealth was mostly enjoyed by three groups: mansabdars with jagirs, zamindars, and interim collectors.
- The Risala-i-zira'at, an administrative manual, indicated that many landholders paid revenue according to outdated assessments while collecting higher sums from cultivators.

Goals and Strategies:
- Murshid Quli aimed to increase government revenue collections from zamindars.
- Shifted jagirs from Bengal to Orissa to reclaim lands for direct government collection.
- Enforced strict revenue payments from zamindars, utilizing imprisonment or torture for noncompliance.
Revenue Enhancement Methods:
- Conducted detailed surveys across revenue-paying areas, though concrete evidence of such surveys is limited.
- Zamindars faced increasing pressure to remit revenues or risk losing control over their lands.
- The government’s focus on zamindars and intermediate landholders allowed for somewhat indirect pressure on lower-level cultivators.

Changes in Landholdings:
- Growth of larger zamindaris led to decline in the total number of zamindaris; the most powerful zamindars absorbed smaller holdings.
- Notable growth of zamindaris like Rajshahi; by 1727, fifteen largest zamindaries accounted for nearly half of provincial revenue.
Consequences:
- Weaker zamindars lost rights, prompting consolidation of power among more capable landholders.
- Moneylenders began to play a crucial role in financial operations linked to zamindars, leading to new expressions of economic power within Bengal.

Transition in governance post-Murshid Quli:
- His death in 1727 led to the rise of Shuja' ud-Din, who inherited a secure position due to the diminished central imperial power.
- Shuja' focused on local loyalties, relying on zamindars and financial interests for governance.
Shuja's Governance:
- Released imprisoned zamindars from Murshid Quli's administration and worked to placate influential figures.
- Advisory councils emerged, indicative of cooperative governance rather than external imposition.
Declining Administrative Efficiency:
- Post-1727 period indicated a significant drop in government awareness regarding revenue assessments and local conditions, complicating relations with zamindars.

Calkins posits that the transition from 1700-1740 witnessed an orderly change rather than chaos, as regional and local interests consolidated power away from imperial authority.
Key Insight: Despite the decline of centralized imperial control, Bengal developed a new political order that effectively addressed internal stability and external threats, shaping the administrative framework that would eventually face British colonial influence.